LB 

1613 



' Course of Study 

for the 

High Schools of Kansas. 



Prepared by 
The State Board of Education, 

1908. 








STATE PRINTING OFFICE, 
TOPEKA, 1908. 




Rnnk • ffgyfe 



V -^ 



Course of Study 



for the 



High Schools of Kansas. 



Prepared by 
The State Board of Education, 

1908. 



6 s^vd 







STATE PRINTING OFFICE, 
TOPEKA, 1908. 



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STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 



E. T. FAIRCHILD, President, 
State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 

FRANK STRONG, 

Chancellor State University, Lawrence. 

E. R. NICHOLS, 

President State Agricultural College, Manhattan. 

JOSEPH H. HILL, 

President State Normal School, Emporia. 

O. G. MARKHAM, 

Professor of Latin, Baker University, Baldwin. 

W. S. HEUSNER, 

Superintendent City Schools, Junction City. 

C. E. RARICK, 

County Superintendent Rooks County, Stockton. 






«97 



COURSES OF STUDY FOR HIGH 
SCHOOLS. 



Section 1 of chapter 387, Session Laws of 1905, reads in part 
as follows: 

"The State Board of Education shall prescribe the course 
of study for the normal institutes, and for the public schools 
of the state, and shall revise the same when the interests of 
the schools require it." 

The State Board of Education, acting under authority of 
the law as quoted above, has attempted to prepare courses 
of study that shall, in some degree at least, meet the needs 
of the high schools of Kansas. We believe that these courses 
are sufficiently elastic to serve the purpose of practically every 
high school in the state. Recognizing the ideal held before the 
young people of the state by our institutions of higher learn- 
ing we have outlined the college preparatory course, following 
very closely the work heretofore outlined in the University 
High School Manual. But we believe that the high schools 
are essentially the schools of the people, and not primarily 
preparatory schools for institutions of higher grade. We have 
therefore thought it feasible to so differentiate the courses 
that our young people may have in our high schools the great- 
est opportunity possible to fit themselves for the work they 
must do when they leave the high school. With this thought 
in mind we have outlined the general and normal courses. 

Let us, so far as possible, fit for college and university. Let 
us give the young men and the young women who must enter 
the business world immediately upon graduation from the 
high school the best preparation possible. 

Let us also train the still greater number of young men and 
young women who will teach school immediately upon gradua- 
tion in the art and science of school management. 

We have thus sought to meet the need, as far as possible, 
of the great throng of young people who are crowding into 
our high schools. Our hope is that these efforts will meet 

(3) 



4 Introduction. 

the approval of school boards, superintendents and principals 
generally. 

If these courses, with live, enthusiastic teachers behind 
them, meet the demand of the young people — if, in Prof. John 
Dewey's words, "they remove friction, free activity, economize 
effort, make for richer results" — it is well, and we have ac- 
complished our purpose. 

In addition to the courses offered there will be found a some- 
what elaborate definition of the units of work in the several 
studies. The value of any high school to a community de- 
pends upon the kind and character of the work done. We 
cannot urge too strongly upon high-school authorities not to 
place any subject upon the program unless there be ample 
provision for the successful teaching of that subject. 

We also strongly urge that all high schools offer at least 
two courses. Whether two, three or four years' work be 
offered should depend entirely upon the teaching force in the 
high school. We fear that a number of high schools in this 
state are attempting too much, in view of the number of 
teachers. We believe that not more than three years in any 
course should be offered when there are not more than two 
instructors to do the work. 

The Board has been at great pains to so arrange the courses 
as to make them correspond, as closely as conditions in this 
state will permit, with the best modern thought in regard to 
the rational and orderly development of the curriculum. 

We trust that this labor of the State Board of Education 
will be of real service to the high schools of Kansas. 



COURSES OF STUDY FOR HIGH 
SCHOOLS, 

AS AGREED UPON BY THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION AT 
THE REGULAR MEETING OF JANUARY 28-30, 1908. 



COLLEGE PREPARATORY COURSE. 

The subjects from which college entrance work may be offered, to- 
gether with the number of units, are arranged in six groups, as follows : 

TABLE No. 1. 
Group I. English, four units; three units required. 

Group II. Mathematics, four units; two and one-half units required. 
Elementary algebra, one and one-half units. 
Plane geometry, one unit. 
Trigonometry, one-half unit. 
Solid geometry, one-half unit. 
Advanced algebra, one-half unit. 
(The elementary algebra and plane geometry are required.) 

Group III. Foreign languages. 

Latin, four units. 

Greek, three units. 

German, three units. 

French, three units. 
(Of these, three units are required, which must be, first, three units of Latin, or, 
second, three units of German.) 

Group IV. Physical sciences, one unit required. 

Physics, one unit. 

Chemistry, one unit. 
(Physiography may be used by schools which find it impracticable to do either 
physics or chemistry.) 

Group V. Biological sciences, one unit required. 
Botany, one unit. 
Zoology, one unit. 

Group VI. History, one unit required. 
Greek and Roman, one unit. 
Mediaeval and modern, one unit. 
English, one unit. 
American, one unit. 
Economics, one unit. 
(If American history is taken, it should be taken in the last year of the course.) 

(5) 



High School 



Explanation with Reference to Standards in the 
College Preparatory Course. 

I. Instructors who are expected to carry college preparatory work 
should be graduates of a university, college or four-year normal school 
course, and in addition to this they should have special training with 
reference to subject-matter and method for some special department of 
work. Instructors should not be required to carry more than six reci- 
tations per day. 

II. The courses prescribed for entrance to the University of Kansas 
and to the accredited colleges of the state are estimated in terms of a 
unit, which consists of a subject running for at least thirty-five weeks, 
five recitations per week, with at least forty minutes for each recitation. 
In all laboratory courses the laboratory period should be twice the length 
of the recitation period. 

III. The character and scope of each unit in any subject shall con- 
form to the definition recommended by the University of Kansas, which 
is also the definition of the accredited colleges of Kansas. 

The foregoing table No. 1 shows by groups the subjects that may 
enter into a college preparatory course in a high school, but does not 
give the order in which subjects may well come. It is intended that 
principals or superintendents shall select from the groups given above a 
course of study suited to their condition, taking care that all the re- 
quired units are first included in proper order. 

The following specific courses (tables Nos. 2 and 3) are suggested for 
the consideration of superintendents and principals. 

TABLE No. 2. 

College Preparatory Course for High Schools Having Three 

or More Teachers, 

First Year, 
first term. second term. 

English. English. 

Algebra. Algebra. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Greek and Roman history. Greek and Roman history. 

Second Year. 

FIRST term. second TERM. 

English. English. 

Geometry. Geometry. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Botany. Botany. 

Third Year. 

FIRST term. second TERM. 

English. English. 

Algebra. Select a half unit from table No. 1. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Mediaeval and modem history. Medijeval and modern history. 

Fourth Year, 
first term. second term, 

Physics. Physics. 

American history. American history. 

Latin, Latin. 

Select one subject from table No. 1. Select one subject from table No. 1. 

In the above course (table No, 2) the following eight and one-half 
units are specifically required, as will be seen by examining the subjects 



Courses of Study. 7 

by groups in table No. 1 : One and one-half units of algebra ; one unit 
of plane geometry; three units of English; three units of either Latin or 
German. 

Besides these, one unit is required from each of groups IV, V, VI, 
which subject in the group is taken being left to the superintendent and 
principal. 

Fifteen units are required for full entrance to the University of 
Kansas, which is the standard for all accredited colleges. Taking the 
eight and one-half specified units and the three units by groups from 
the fifteen required units, leaves three and one-half units to be selected 
from the other subjects in the groups. These can be taken at the pleasure 
of the principal and superintendent. For instance, only one unit of 
history is required, but there are three units in the course in table No. 2. 
Two of these history units could be replaced by other subjects in table 
No. 1, or English history could be put in the place of American history, 
etc. In the same way, in the second year, zoology could be put in the 
place of botany. Likewise, in the fourth year, where one subject is to 
be selected from table No. 1, it may be either chemistry or physics. In 
the third year, second term, the half unit which is to be selected from 
table No. 1 may be any one of half units given there, or any half unit 
which local conditions make advisable, but in the latter case the half unit 
would not be counted for admission to the University or the colleges. 

There are, as will be seen in table No. 2, sixteen units in a four-year 
course, while but fifteen are required for entrance to the University or 
the accredited colleges. This leaves one unit which may be filled in with 
subjects that local needs may indicate. 

TABLE No. 3. 
College Preparatory Course for High Schools Having Two Teachers. 

First Year, 
first term. second term. 

English. English. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Algebra. Algebra. 

Greek and Roman history. Greek and Roman history. 

Second Year. 

FIRST TERM. SECOND TERM. 

English. English. 

Geometry. Geometry. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Botany. Botany. 

Third Year. 

FIRST TERM. SECOND TERM. 

English. English. 

Algebra. ' Select one-half unit. 

Latin or German. Latin or German. 

Physics. Physics. 

A school of two teachers cannot, under ordinary circumstances, do 
more than the twelve units necessary for conditional admission to the 
University or the accredited colleges. These twelve units make three 
full years of work. In case a school is so fortunate as to be able by 
alternation of classes to do more than twelve units, an additional unit 
or two may be carried, provided the teachers do not have more than 
six periods of teaching per day, that being fixed by the action of the 
State Board of Education as the maximum. (See page 6.) 

For instance, in table No. 3, botany is given in the second year. Sup- 
pose that for the next class zoology is given. Those who took botany 
the year before would now be in the third year, and by taking five sub- 
jects they could take zoology with the class in the second year. They 



8 High School 

would thus have made thirteen units instead of twelve. In like manner, 
in the place of physics in the third year chemistry might be given, and 
taken by the second-year class. This alternation, however, involves five 
subjects in some years, which would prove a heavy burden. Therefore 
schools that are equipped with but two teachers are advised to enter 
upon alternation of subjects only after very mature deliberation. 



GENERAL COURSE. 

The subjects for the general course are arranged in the following 
groups : 

Group I. English, four units; three units required. 

Group II. Mathematics, four units; two and one-half units required. 
Algebra, one and one-half units. 
Geometry, one and one-half units. 
Advanced algebra, one-half unit. 
Trigonometry, one-half unit. 
(The elementary algebra and plane geometry are required.) 

Group III. Modern Languages. 

German, three units. 
French, three units. 
Spanish, three units. 

Group IV. Physical Science, two and one-half units; one unit required. 
Physics, one unit. 
Chemistry, one unit. 
Physiography, one-half unit. 

Group V. Biological Science, two and one-half units; one unit required. 
Botany, one unit. 
Zoology, one unit. 
Physiology, one-half unit. 

Group VI. History, four and one-half units; two units required, one 
of which shall be American history. 
Greek and Eoman, one unit. 
Mediaeval and modern, one unit. 
English, one unit. 
American, one unit. 
Civics, one-half unit. 

Group VII. Commercial, four units. 

Bookkeeping and business practice, one unit. 
Commercial law, one-half unit. 
Commercial geography, one-half unit. 
Stenography, one unit. 
Typewriting, one-half unit. 
Business arithmetic, one-half unit. 

Group VIII. Economic, five units. 

Economics, one unit. 

Agriculture, one unit. 

Manual training, one unit. 

Domestic science, one unit. 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing, one unit. 



Courses of Study. 



GENERAL COURSE. 
Snggestwe Course of Study for High Schools of Three Teachers. 

First Year. 

FIRST TERM. . , SECOND TERM. 

Required: Required: 

Algebra. Algebra. 

Elective: ^^%t'"^-\r.^r 

Physiography. S-5or!°^- 

Historv mstoiy. 

Moder^' languages. Modern languages. 

Manual trainini, or Manual training, or 

Domestic science. Domestic science. 

Drawing. Drawing. 



FIRST TERM. 
Required : 
English. 
Botany. 
Geometry. 

Elective : 
History. 

Modem languages. 
Commercial geography. 
Manual training, or 
Domestic science. 



FIRST TERM. 

Required : 

English. 

Algebra. 

History. 
Elective : 

Zoology. 

Modern languages. 

Agriculture. 

Bookkeeping. 



Second Year. 

second term. 

Required: 
English. 
Botany. 
Geometry. 

Elective : 
History. 

Modem languages. 
Business arithmetic. 
Manual training, or 
Domestic science. 



Third Year. 



SECOND term. 



FIRST TERM. 

Required : 

American history. 
Physics. 

Elective : 
English. 

Advanced algebra. 
Modem languages. 
Economics. 
Commercial law. 
Stenography. 
Civics. 
Chemistry. 
Reviews, common branches. 



Required : 
English. 
History. 

Elective : 
Zoology. 

Modem languages. 
Agriculture. 
Bookkeeping. 
Geometry. 

Fourth Year. 

second term. 

Required : 

American history. 

Physics. 
Elective: 

English. 

Trigonometry. 

Modem languages. 

Economics. 

Stenography. 

Typewriting. 

Chemistry. 

Reviews, common branches. 



10 



High School 



Suggestive Course of Study for High Schools of Two Teachers. 

First Year. 

second term. 
Required : 

English. 

Algebra. 

History. 
Elective : 

Physiology. 

Modern languages. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Drawing. 

Second Year. 

second term. 
Required : 

English. 

Geometry. 

Botany. 
Elective : 

History. 

Modern languages. 

Business arithmetic. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Third Year. 

second term. 
Required: 
English. 
Physics. 
American history. 

Elective : 
Civics. 
Geometry. 
Reviews, common branches. 



FIRST TERM. 
Required: 

English. 

Algebra. 

History. 
Elective : 

Physiography. 

Modem languages. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Drawing. 

FIRST TERM. 
Required: 

English. 

Geometry. 

Botany. 
Elective : 

History. 

Modem languages. 

Commercial geography. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 



FIRST TERM. 

JRequired : 
English. 
Physics. 

American history. 
Algebra. 



NORMAL COURSE. 

The subjects for the normal high-school course are arranged in the 
lollowing groups: 

Group I. English, four units ; three units required. 

Group II. Mathematics, four and one-half units; two and one-half units 
required. 
Algebra, one and one-half units. 
Geometry, one and one-half units. 
Arithmetic, one-half unit. 
Advanced algebra, one-half unit. 
Trigonometry, one-half unit. 

Group III. Foreign languages. 

Latin, four units. 
German, three units. 



CouKSES OF Study. 



11 



Group IV. Physical science, two and one-half units; one unit required. 
Physics, one unit. 
Chemistry, one unit. 
Physiography, one-half unit. 

Group V. Biological science, two and one-half units; one unit required. 
Botany, one unit. 
Zoology, one unit. 
Physiology, one-half unit. 

Group VI. History, four and one-half units; two units required, one of 
which shall be American history (including Kansas 
history.) 
Greek and Roman, one unit. 
Mediaeval and modern, one unit. 
English, one unit. 

American (including Kansas), one unit. 
Civics, one-half unit. 

Group VII. Commercial, four units. 

Bookkeeping and business practice, one unit. 
Commercial law, one-half unit. 
Commercial geography, one-half unit. 
Stenography, one unit. 
Typewriting, one-half unit. 
Business arithmetic, one-half unit. 

Group VIII. Arts, four units ; one unit required. 
Manual training, one unit. 
Domestic science, one unit. 
Free-hand and mechanical drawing, one unit. 
Music, one unit. 

Group IX. Pedagogy, two units; both required. 
Psychology, one-half unit. 
Methods and management, one-half unit. 
Reviews of common branches, one unit. 



NORMAL COURSE. 
Suggestive Course of Study for High Schools of Three or More Teachers. 



FIRST TERM. 

Required : 

English. 

Algebra. 
Elective : 

History. 

Foreign languages. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Drawing or music. 

Physiography. 



First Year. 

second term. 
Required: . 

English. 

Algebra. 
Elective : 

History. 

Foreign languages. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Drawing or music. 

Physiology. 



12 



High School 



FIRST TERM. 
Required: 

English. 

Botany. 

Geometry. 
Elective : 

History. 

Foreign languages. 

Commercial geography. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 



FIRST TERM. 

Required: 

English. 

Algebra. 

Psychology. 
Elective : 

History. 

Foreign languages. 

Zoology. 

Bookkeeping. 



FIRST TERM. 

Required: 

American history. 

Physics. 
Elective : 

English. 

Foreign languages. 

Commercial law. 

Chemistry. 

Stenography. 

Civics. 

Reviews. 



Second Year. 

second term. 
Required : 

English. 

Botany. 

Geometry. 
Elective : 

History. 

Foreign languages. 

Business arithmetic. 

Manual training, or 

Domestic science. 

Third Year. 

SECOND term. 
Required : 
English. 

Methods and management. 
Elective : 
History. 

Foreign languages. 
Zoology. 
Bookkeeping. 
Arithmetic. 

Fourth Year. 

SECOND term. 
Required: 

American history. 

Physics. 
Elective : 

English. 

Foreign languages. 

Typewriting. 

Chemistry. 

Stenography. 

Reviews. 



UNITS IN THE FOREGOING COURSES DEFINED. 

In order that teachers may understand clearly what each unit in the 
foregoing groups and courses ought to cover, the units are defined in 
detail in the following list. 



Courses of Study. 13 



Group L 



ENGLISH. Three units. 

The requirements in English for admission to the University of Kan- 
sas — requirements that are now standard for all American colleges — as 
formally stated comprise only English literature, meaning classics chiefly, 
and English composition. As originally formulated, these requirements 
were defined by stating as follows the nature of the examination to be 
based upon them: 

"I. Reading. — A certain number of books will be set for reading (see 
list subjoined). The candidate will be required to present evidence of 
general knowledge of the subject-matter, and to answer simple questions 
on the lives of the authors. The form of examination will usually be 
the writing of a paragraph or two on each of several topics to be chosen 
by the candidate from a considerable number — perhaps ten or fifteen — 
set before him in an examination paper. The treatment of these topics 
is designed to test the candidate's power of clear and accurate expres- 
sion, and will call for only a general knowledge of the substance of the 
books. In place of a part or the whole of this test, the candidate may 
present an exercise book, properly certified by his instructor, containing 
compositions or other written work done in connection with the reading 
of the book. In preparation for this part of the requirement, it is im- 
portant that the candidate shall have been instructed in the fundamental 
principles of rhetoric. 

"II. Study and Practice. — This part of the examination presupposes 
the thorough study of each of the works named in this division. The ex- 
amination will be upon subject-matter, form, and structure. In addition, 
the candidate will be required to answer questions involving the essen- 
tials of English grammar, and on the leading facts of the periods of 
English history to which the prescribed texts belong. 

"Note. — No candidate will be accepted in English whose work is nota- 
bly defective in point of spelling, punctuation, idiom, or division into 
paragraphs." 

Since the adoption of the requirements thus indicated, supplementary 
recommendations have been made from time to time with intent to make 
clearer the real meaning and intent of those requirements. Among the 
first of these supplementary recommendations was the following group: 

1. That English be studied throughout the primary and secondary 
school courses, and when possible for at least three periods a week during 
the four years of the high-school course. 

2. That the prescribed books be regarded as a basis for such wider 
courses of English study as the schools may arrange for themselves. 

3. That where careful instruction in idiomatic English translation 
is not given, supplementary work to secure an equivalent training in 
dictation and in sentence-structure be offered throughout the high-school 
course. 

4. That a certain amount of outside reading, chiefly of poetry, fiction 
biography, and history, be encouraged throughout the entire school 
course. 

5. That definite instruction be given in the choice of words, in the 
structure of sentences and of paragraphs, and in the simple forms of 



14 High School 

narration, description, exposition, and argximent. Such instruction should 
begin early in the high-school course. 

6. That systematic training in speaking and writing English be given 
throughout the entire school course. That in the high school, subjects 
for compositions be taken partly from the prescribed books and partly 
from the student's own thought and experience. 

7. That each of the books prescribed for study be taught with refer- 
ence to: (a) The language, including the meaning of words and sen- 
tences, the important qualities of style, and the important allusions, (b) 
The plan of the work, i. e., its structure and method, (c) The place of 
the work in literary history, the circumstances of its production, and 
the life of its author, (d) That all details be studied, not as ends in 
themselves, but as means to the comprehension of the whole. • 

To these recommendations a paragraph on grammar has since been 
added : 

The student should have a sufficient knowledge of English grammar to 
enable him at need to point out the syntactical structure of any sentence 
which he encounters in the prescribed reading. He should also be able 
to state intelligently the leading grammatical principles when he is called 
upon to do so. Whether this knowledge is obtained in the elementary 
school and the secondary school combined, or only in the elementary 
school, is immaterial, provided the student have it; but in most cases it 
cannot be acquired except through regular study and practice in the 
lower grades, and scarce through these. A progressive and regular de- 
velopment of the grammar sense, from the lowest grades to the highest, 
is much to be preferred to a sudden and unprepared for injection of 
formal grammar at a particular stage, as, for example, in the eighth 
grade. 

With reference to the teaching of composition, teachers have been ad- 
vised in still other recommendations that composition work should be 
oral as well as written, that such work should be continuous throughout 
the entire high-school course, and that text-books in rhetoric or composi- 
tion are by no means essential to successful training, but are to be used 
with great discretion. Other suggestions have been that the studies of 
composition and of classics be correlated throughout the high-school 
course in the proportion of about three recitation periods weekly of 
classics to two periods of composition, and that the length of the English 
course indicated be three years of five recitation periods weekly. 

The classics recommended for the examination occurring in September 
of 1909, 1910 and 1911 are as follows: 

FOR READING. 

Group I (two books to be selected) : 
Shakspere — As You Like It. 
" — Julius Caesar. 

" — The Merchant of Venice. 

« —Twelfth Night. 

—Henry V. 
Group II (one book to be selected) : 

Bunyan — The Pilgrim's Progress, part I. 
Bacon — Essays. 

Addison — De Coverley Papers ("Spectator"). 
» Franklin — Autobiography. 
Group III (one book to be selected) : 
Chaucer — Prologue. 

Spenser — Selections from Fserie Queene. 
Pope — The Rape of the Lock. 
Goldsmith — The Deserted Village. 

Palgrave — Golden Treasury (first series), books II and III, with espe- 
cial attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns, 



Courses of Study. 15- 

Group IV (two books to be selected) : 

Hawthorne — The House of the Seven Gables. 

Thackeray — Henry Esmond. 

George Eliot — Silas Marner. 

Dickens — A Tale of Two Cities. 

Scott — Ivanhoe. 
" — Quentin Durward, 

Goldsmith — The Vicar of Wakefield. 

Mrs. Gaskell — Cranford. 

Blackmore — Lorna Doone. 
Group V (two books to be selected) : 

Emerson — E ssays ( selected ) . 

Ruskin — Sesame and Lilies. 

Irving — Sketch Book. 

Carlyle — Heroes and Hero-worship. 

De Quincey — Joan of Arc and the English Mail-coach. 

Lamb — Essays of Elia. 
Group VI* (two books to be selected) : 

Palgrave — Golden Treasury (first series), book IV, with especial at- 
tention to Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley. 

Coleridge — The Ancient Mariner. 

Lowell — The Vision of Sir Launfal. 

Scott — The Lady of the Lake. 

Poe — Poems. 

Tennyson — Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, and The Passing 
of Arthur. 

Arnold — Sohrab and Rustum. 

Byron — Mazeppa and The Prisoner of Chillon. 

Longfellow — Courtship of Miles Standish. 

Browning — Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How They Brought the 
Good News from Ghent to Aix, Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts from 
Abroad, Home Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French 
Camp, The Boy and the Angel, One Word More, Herve Riel^ 
Pheidippides. 

Macaulay — Lays of Ancient Rome. 

for study and practice. 

Shakspere — Macbeth. 

Milton — Lycidas, Comus, L'Allegro, and II Penseroso. 
Burke — Speech on Conciliation with America. 
Macaulay — Life of Johnson. 

alternatives. 
For Burke: 

Washington — Farewell Address; and also 

Webster — First, Bunker Hill Oration. 
For Macaulay: 

Carlyle — Essay on Burns. 

Within the indicated limits, the choice of the books to be read, their 
arrangement, and the order of study, are left to the teacher, and must 
vary with circumstances. In a general way, it may be advisable to under- 
take to study later writers before earlier ones, American before English, 
prose before verse, narrative and concrete literary types before those 
that are reflective and abstract. But since all these principles cannot 
be applied at once, any combination of them will serve that, under the 
conditions of each case, seems to be the order of increasing interest and 
of easiest approach to difficulties, and will at the same time coordinate 
the study of classics with that of composition. The only text-books 
needed, except for reviewing the history of the periods concerned, are 
editions of the classics themselves; and the reading of them should be 
accompanied with such discussion as will best serve to aid students to 
appreciate the form, style and spirit of the books read, as well as to un- 



16 High School 

derstand their subject-matter and their general relations, historical and 
personal. 

It will often be expedient, before taking up in class the works pre- 
scribed for careful study, to spend some time upon a part of the fiction 
and later verse in the home-reading list, in order to show such pupils 
as may need it how the home-reading and study may be carried on. To 
do this will be the more necessary and will take longer if the class has 
had no satisfactory training before entering the high school. After- 
ward, when this preliminary study of fiction and verse has been com- 
pleted, and the pupil continues such reading outside of class while work- 
ing in class on the books prescribed for careful study, the results of his 
outside reading should still be constantly tested by making it as often 
as necessary the subject of class discussions and of written reports and 
essays. Although not specifically mentioned in the reading list, the out- 
side reading is always to include biographical and historical matter re- 
lating to the authors, the texts, and the periods represented. 

After selecting the recommended classics, it will be found that in three 
years there is ample time for reference reading, and for the rapid read- 
ing of more classics than are prescribed. The dividing of the three-year 
course into one-year units is a matter that may be governed by circum- 
stances or by the convenience of the teacher. The course should be viewed 
as a whole and taught as a whole, without other than necessary reference 
to years and terms. In passing from American writers to English, and 
from later to earlier, careful comparisons should be made at each step. 

The following tentative outline includes, perhaps, the simplest of the 
various options offered, except that Burke's Speech on Conciliation is re- 
tained because of its peculiar value and adaptability for every sort of 
analysis. For all but a few of the classics named, alternatives may be 
substituted at pleasure from the prescribed list: 

IN CLASS. Fiction. out of class. 

Hawthorne. — House of the Seven Eliot. — Silas Marner, after corn- 
Gables. Begin in class, finish pleting Hawthorne. Contrast 
outside if necessary. American and English traits, 

and if possible compare the 
Vicar of Wakefield as an eight- 
eenth-century novel. 

Verse. 

Lowell.' — Vision of Sir Launfal. Coleridge. — The Ancient Mariner. 

Compare American with Eng- Goldsmith. — Deserted Village. Ref- 

lish, later with earlier. If con- erence and other collateral read- 

venient, read also The Cotter's ing as required. 
Saturday Night before begin- 
ning Carlyle's Essay on Burns. 

Essay. 
Carlyle. — Essay on Bums. Irving or Emerson. — Selected es- 

Study for style and method as says, 

well as subject-matter, with Lamb. — Essays of Elia. 
comparisons as previously sug- 
gested. 

Public Address. 

Burke. — Speech on Conciliation. Extended reference reading. 

Earlier Verse and Prose. 
Milton. — Lycidas, Comus, L'Allegro Bunyan. — Pilgrim's Progress, 
and II Penseroso. Part I. 

Drama. 
Shakspere. — Macbeth. Shakspere. — Two plays selected 

from list. 
General historical review. 



Courses of Study. 17 

In this outline the first year's work might include Carlyle, the second 
Burke and Milton, and the third Shakspere and the historical review. 
Shakspere and Milton may, of course, be interchanged at pleasure, and 
the general order may be otherwise varied in any way that will best 
serve the general end of making the work interesting and profitable. 

The preceding arrangement is such that as a rule no classic is read at 
home until part of it or until a similar one has been studied in class. The 
purpose of this is to insure a fuller appreciation of the books read at 
home. That the pupil may in his class-study have passed on to another 
type of literature, does not make any difficulty. When a classic has been 
assigned for home reading, a recitation period may be spent in the pre- 
liminary discussion of it, and essay subjects relating to it may then be 
assigned; when the home reading of it is completed at least one or two 
recitation periods may be spent in reviewing it, and some of the essays 
may then be presented in class. Whenever time presses, a longer classic, 
the reading of which has been begun in class, may be completed out of 
class, provided always that the teacher sees to it that, by means of final 
discussion or otherwise, the work shall be understood as a whole, and 
that its literary or artistic unity shall be the chief thing to be impressed 
on the minds of the pupils. 

The class study of literature is intended to be much more thorough, 
and therefore much more critical, than the collateral home reading. It 
must be systematic, and yet no single system or method can be made to 
apply to all the books studied. Indeed, it might be said that if a method 
of study proves satisfactory with one book or class, or in the hands of one 
teacher, that is an excellent reason why it is likely not to be satisfactory 
with another book or class or teacher. Certain things, however, may be 
indicated as belonging in general to the critical study of literature; and 
in taking up the study of a classic the teacher must decide which or how 
many of them may profitably be applied in that instance, and must be 
ready to supplement them with others. Such a list of what may be called 
points of attack upon a classic is as follows : 

A. — The meaning of the classic; interpretation and abstract; the clear- 
ing up of all difficulties of words or phrases, figures and allusions; the 
analysis of logical structure, the determining of important events and 
characters and of the central lesson or purpose of the work as a whole. 

B. — The style of the classic; study of selected passages, to note dis- 
tinctive peculiarities of language or structure and to determine which of 
them contribute to the merit of the work or throw light upon the person- 
ality of the author. 

C. — The method of the classic, logical or artistic; after the interpreta- 
tion is completed, deciding to what type or class of literature it belongs 
and developing as far as may be some of the principles upon which that 
classification is based. 

D. — Relation of the author to the classic; the study of his purpose and 
motive and of his reasons for his choice of subject and of foi:m, of his at- 
titude toward his work, his general habit of thought, and so on. 

E. — General relations of the classic, historical and literary; after the 
collateral reference reading is completed, study of the historical basis of 
the work, its place in literary development, its influence, and so on. 

F. — General review and summary of whatever matters have been 
taken up for special study; selection of best parts and passages, and 
general estimate of the literary value of the work. 

With a beginning class, and with some books of less importance, it 
might be best to confine attention to topics A and F of this list. With a 
class a little more advanced, and with suitable books, other topics may be 
introduced. A new topic of study may receive a greater proportion of 
time than those earlier considered; and it is necessary to be very careful 
not to take up too many points in the study of any one book; its central 

—2 



18 High School 

meaning and unity, its distinctive purpose, relations and merit, are 
among the chief things to be kept in view. 

The correlation of the studies of composition and of classics consists 
not only in carrying them on side by side, but in making use of the books 
read to illustrate the principles of expression which students may apply 
to their own speech and writing, in assigning subjects which will require 
independent critical reading of books in hand, or reading for informa- 
tion on special topics, and, so far as is convenient, in keeping to the same 
general order of subjects in both studies, so that the work done in each 
may reenforce that of the other. Abstracts and summaries of books 
read should never be required as composition exercises except when abso- 
lutely necessary, as they hinder the growth of that independence of view 
which is essential in the critical study of literature. To maintain and 
develop ease and originality of expression, fully half of the composition 
exercises should be based on the student's experience; that is, on his pres- 
ent or past observation ; and on occasion exercises may be partly or wholly 
imaginative. 

Composition and rhetoric are not to be regarded as distinct subjects 
in the high-school course. A rhetoric is merely a text-book in composi- 
tion; and in the study of composition, as in that of literature, the use of 
formal text-books is purely an incidental matter. The principal part of 
the work must always be the preparation and discussion of oral and 
written exercises. Such an exercise of some kind, longer or shorter, 
should be a part of every lesson, and probably at least one exercise every 
week should be a written exercise of some length. 

Points that may be successively considered in a course in composition 
are: the structure of discourses, of paragraphs, and of sentences, the 
choice and use of words, and the nature and more general principles of 
narration and description, exposition and argument. Throughout the 
course, the most important objects to keep in view are the securing of 
easy and spontaneous expression, and the adapting of material to the 
person or public addressed. To accomplish these most successfully the 
work may well begin with the preparation of stories — ;that is, of narra- 
tive or descriptive exercises based on observation or imagination; then 
may follow the preparation of essays presenting reflective material de- 
rived from all sources, and the study of theme, plan, and paragraphs; 
then, with any sort of material or treatment, may be taken up the study 
of sentences and words, and the general principles of style; and finally, 
the general principles of all forms of discourse, and in particular of 
narrative and exposition, may be considered with appropriate material 
and exercises. Any text-book may be used, in so far as it is found to be 
suitable and helpful; but no text-book should be followed too closely, and 
no topic or exercise assigned if there is no better reason for assigning it 
than that it is to be found in the book. 

Under no circumstances should a period be spent in memoriter recita- 
tion upon any text; if there can be no practical illustrative exercise of 
any kind, the study of rhetorical theory is of little worth except for such 
incidental aid as it may furnish toward the appreciation of literature, and 
this is too little for the time expended. Often the work in composition 
may be done to the best advantage without the use of any text or texts 
whatever, except for reference and in reviewing. 

Any division according to years or terms of the subjects named must 
be discretionary, to suit the conditions of individual schools or of indi- 
vidual classes or teachers. The following general arrangement by years 
is therefore purely tentative, to be followed only when no better plan can 



Courses of Study. - 19 

be found. It includes classics as well as composition, jn the order already 
specified : 

FIRST YEAR. 

IN CLASS. OUT OF CLASS. 

Literature. Three periods weekly. House of Seven Gables, completed. 
House of Seven Gables, in part. Silas Marner. 
Vision of Sir Launfal. The Ancient Mariner. 

Essay on Burns. Deserted Village. 

Other books as selected. Essays of Irving or Emerson, and 

Lamb. 
Reference-reading of biography, 
history, etc. 
Composition and Rhetoric. Two periods weekly. 

The finding, shaping and adapting of material, in written and oral 
exercises; stories, letters, essays, study of theme, plan, and para- 
graph. 

SECOND YEAR. 

IX CLASS. ' OUT OF CLASS. 

Literature. Three periods. Reference reading- 

Speech on Conciliation. Pilgrim's Progress, part I. 

Minor Poems of Milton. 
Other books as selected. 
Composition and Rhetoric. Two periods. 

The principles of style, in written and oral exercises; stories, letters, 
essays, study of sentence-structure and of choice and use of words, 
study of paragraphs, translation, synonyms, figures, verse forms, etc. 

THIRD YEAR. 

IN CLASS. OUT OF CLASS. 

Literature. Three periods. Two selected plays of Shakspere. 

Macbeth. Reference reading. 

Other books as selected. 

General historical review. 
Composition and Rhetoric. Two periods. 

The forms of discourse; stories, letters, essays, study of nature and 
principles of narration and description, exposition and argument. 

To secure the continuous study of English through the four years of a 
high school either of two methods may be followed. If practicable, it is 
of advantage for all students, and particularly for such as do not after- 
ward enter college, to add a fourth year of English to the three full 
years herein described as a college-entrance requirement. If this is not 
practicable, the three years' work may be distributed through four years 
by assigning to it fewer than five recitation periods a week in the last 
two years, so that the total time given it is not increased. 

An excellent four-year course in English may be made by simply ar- 
ranging for the reading of a greater number of the classics listed as 
alternatives for 1909, 19i0, and 1911, with some few additions, as here 
shown. Year divisions cannot be prescribed, though they may correspond 
roughly to the successive centuries as indicated. The composition work 
for the first three years may be as indicated in the preceding table; for 
the fourth year it may consist of regular essay writing. 

FOUR-YEAR ENGLISH COURSE. 

NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

American Fiction; the short story. 
(This part of the course may be given in the grades.) 

IN CLASS. OUT OF CLASS. 

Selections from Selections from 

Irving. — The Sketch-book. Hawthorne. — Twice Told Tales. 

Poe.— Tales. 



20 



High School 



American and English Fiction; longer works corrvpared with short stories. 
(Part of this work may be done in the grades.) 



Hawthorne. — House of Seven 
Gables completed. The remain- 
ing books listed from Eliot, 
Scott, Dickens, Gaskell, and 
Blackmore. 



Hawthorne. — House of Seven 
Gables begun. One book se- 
lected from Eliot, Scott, Dick- 
ens, Gaskell, or Blackmore (see 
list) . 

American Verse. 
(Books interchangeable at pleasure.) 

Lowell. — Vision of Sir Launfal. Longfellow. — Courtship of Miles 

Standish. 
Poe. — Poems. 

English Verse, compared with Am,erican. 
(Books interchangeable at pleasure, and so below.) 



OUT OF CLASS. 



Coleridge. — Ancient Mariner. 



Books listed from Scott, Byron, 
Tennyson, Browning, Arnold, 
Palgrave's Golden Treasury. 

American Essay. 
Selections from Emerson. Selections from Irving and Holmes. 

English Essay. 
Carlyle. — Essay on Burns. Books listed from Lamb, Ruskin, 

Carlyle, DeQuincey. 

EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 
Fiction. 
Goldsmith. — Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. — ■ Vicar of Wakefield, 
begun. completed. 

Johnson. — Rasselas. 
DeFoe. — Robinson Crusoe. 
Selections from Gulliver's Travels. 

Verse. 
Goldsmith. — Deserted Village. Books listed from Pope, Macaulay, 

and Palgrave's Golden Treasury. 

General Prose. 
Burke. — Speech on Conciliation. Addison. — Papers from " Spec- 

Macaulay. — Life of Johnson. tator." 

Franklin. — Autobiography. 



Milton. — Minor Poems. 



Shakspere. — Macbeth. 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 
Verse. 

Milton. — Selections from Paradise 

Lost. 
Selections from Palgrave's Golden 
Treasury. 

Draina. 

Shakspere. — Two or more plays 
selected from list. 



Prose. 



Bacon. — Selected Essays. 

Selections from King James's Bible, 
e. g., the Book of Job. (May 
be taken from Modern Reader's 
Bible.) 



Bunyan. — Pilgrim's Progress. 

Bible Selections, e. g., Psalms, 
Proverbs, Lamentations, Eccle- 
siastes. ( Modern Reader's 
Bible.) 



Courses of Study. 21 

EARLIER LITERATURE, 

IN CLASS. OOT OF CLASS. 

Chaucer. — Prologue. Chaucer. — Selections from Canter- 

Spenser. — Selections from Faerie bury Tales. 

Queene. Spenser. — Selections from Faerie 

Queene. 
Selections from Old English, in 
translation. 
Historical review. 

Students who offer, with the approval of the High-school Visitor, the 
equivalent of this four-year course in English for entrance to the Uni- 
versity, may be excused from taking in the University the English liter- 
ature course of the Freshman year, which is otherwise required for ad- 
mission to any other University courses in English. 

At option any high school may add to the regular three-year course 
in English a fourth year of either English language or English composi- 
tion, and have the same accepted as one of the fifteen required entrance 
units. A one-year course in English language may begin with the study 
of elementary Old English — grammar, prose composition, and readings 
from the simplest prose and verse. Then may follow the history of the 
English language and grammar after the Old English period, with par- 
ticular attention to orthography, pronunciation, word composition and 
derivation, inflections and syntax; and the course may be completed with 
the study of Middle English for the rest of the available time. Good 
text-books for such a course as this are Smith's Old English Grammar 
for the Old English part, Champney's History of English or Emerson's 
History of English for the historical part; and for the study of Middle 
English either or both of Sweet's First and Second Middle English 
Primers, or the school editions of Chaucer's Prologue to the Canterbury 
Tales, and the Knightes Tales. 

In a year of English composition to follow the regular three-year 
course the time may be given chiefly to the study of the principal forms 
of discourse, narrative and descriptive, expository and argumentative, 
vdth daily practice in adapting these to all purposes and occasions for 
which speaking or writing is demanded, with especial reference to pur- 
pose and occasion and to the character of the person or public to be ad- 
dressed. With this there should be a large amount of collateral study of 
literary selections illustrating the several types of oral and written ad- 
dress as they are taken up for study and practice. 

To be accepted by the University, a four-year course in English, or a 
fourth year of English, must have the approval of the University High- 
school Visitor; and if accepted, students who offer it will be excused from 
a corresponding part of their college English. Entrance certificates must 
show in complete detail the nature of the high-school English course, 
and especially of the fourth unit, if offered. 

If any course herein outlined seems too heavy, it may be lightened by 
omission, or by having some part of the earlier work done in the grades. 
In any case, whether three or four years in length, the high-school English 
course is to be planned and taught as an integral thing, and not as a 
series of detached one-year units. It is to be taught without reliance 
upon any particular text-book, and with regard for results rather than 
methods. The University and the business world alike wish to have high- 
school pupils trained to see and think for themselves in the study of 
books as well as of nature and of men ; and trained to express what they 
see and think with readiness, ease, and reasonable accuracy. Whatever 
books or •inethods lead most efficiently to these general ends may reason- 
ably be approved; and exact uniformity in courses or in the work of in- 
dividual teachers, or in the work of the same teacher in successive years, 
is neither prescribed or expected. 

The number of good text- and reference-books in English is now so 
great that it is scarcely practicable to specify any one as being the best 
of its class. Editions of the classics listed in the requirements for college 



22 High School 

entrance may be had of any educational publisher. Among the good text- 
books in composition and rhetoric are those of Genung, Newcomer, Web- 
ster, Mead and Gordy, Scott and Denney, Lockwood and Emerson, Smith 
and Thomas, Herrick and Damon (revised edition), Gardiner and Kit- 
tredge and Arnold, Kavanagh and Beatty, Espenshade, Huntingdon, 
and Lamont. A convenient little reference-book on methods of teaching 
classics is Heydrick's How to Study Literature. The most complete 
treatise yet published on methods of teaching English subjects in general 
is Carpenter, Baker and Scott's The Teaching of English. 

The paper edition of the University Handbook on the Teaching of 
English, which has for some years been sent free to applicants on pay- 
ment of postage, is now exhausted, A few copies bound in cloth remain 
in the hands of the publishers, Scott, Foresman & Co., and will be sent 
postpaid for fifty cents each as long as they last. 

The University theme and essay tablet for use in composition teaching, 
with any text-book or without a text-book, is published by O. P. Barnes, 
378 Wabash avenue, Chicago, and is sold for fifteen cents. 

New editions of classics and new texts and references in all English 
subjects are constantly appearing, and the best way to choose is to select 
from publishers' catalogues those which appear to be most suitable, and 
to write for copies for examination with the privilege of return. All 
educational publishers extend this privilege to teachers and school officers. 



Courses of Study. 23 



Group 11. 



MATHEMATICS. Three units. 

The requirement in mathematics for admission to the College of Arts 
and Sciences, School of Law, School of Fine Arts, and School of Medicme 
of the University of Kansas, consists of one and one-half units of ele- 
mentary algebra, and one unit of plane geometry. In the School of 
Engineering, an additional half -unit of solid geometry is required. 

An additional half-unit of plane trigonometry and a half-unit of ad- 
vanced algebra will be accepted by the University from such of its ac- 
credited schools as the High-school Visitor may certify are properly 
equipped to teach these courses. 

Detailed accounts of the topics required and the suggestions as to the 
methods of teaching the various subjects are given below. 

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA. One and one-half units. 

The text-book in Algebra adopted for the use of the Kansas schools is 
Marsh's Elementary Algebra. Since this book contains a larger amount 
of algebra than the average class can master in a year and a half under 
present conditions, some portions of it must be omitted, and it becomes 
necessary for the University to specify definitely just what portions may 
be omitted and just what portions must be mastered by the pupils in 
order to fulfill its requirements for admission. 

The task is most easily accomplished by enumerating the paragraphs, 
exercises and chapters which may be omitted, and yet the pupils be fully 
prepared to enter the University classes. In this way the University lays 
doAvn the essential things and the minimum amount of algebra which the 
preparatory schools must teach, but leaves them free to select such other 
topics as their time and local conditions may permit. But it is recom- 
mended that the high schools omit these designated topics and chapters 
from their course, and drill their pupils more thoroughly in the required 

topics. . 1 J. n • 

These omissions and other suggestions are given m the following notes 
on the various chapters. Chapters not mentioned are to be taken entire, 
but no comments on them are deemed advisable. 

Chap. I. Note. — This chapter is very easy, but no part of it ought to 
be omitted for that reason. Exercises I, II, III, and IV, especially, should 
be given careful attention. 

Cha23. IV. Note 1. — In this chapter, solve every problem and check 
the result. Less attention should be given to the axioms than to the 
process of verification, because the latter is the only certain test of the 
correctness of a solution. It should be made clear to the pupil that the 
solution of a simple equation means the finding of a value of the unloiown 
which will satisfy that equation. Too often pupils have the notion that 
it means going mechanically through a certain regular process which at 
the end gives the "answer." As Professor Heppel says: "A habit of 
constant verification cannot be too soon encouraged, and the earlier^ it is 
acquired the more swiftly and almost automatically it is practiced." •' 

Note 2.— Chapters I, II, III and IV are so elementary in their charac- 
ter and so suitable for younger pupils that they may well be taught in 
the grammar-school. The practical use and the disciplinary value of the 
methods of chapter IV are worth more to the pupil than all the compound 

♦Heppel, Algebra in Schools, in the Mathematical Gazette, February, 1905. 



24 High School 

proportion, bank discount, cube root, etc., that are contained between the 
covers of the old arithmetics. The notion that all problems in the schools 
and in school examinations should be "solved by arithmetic" is" inex- 
cusable pedantry. 

Chap. V. Note. — In solving examples 4 to 9, inclusive, of exercise 
XXX, the use of parentheses in the first expansion, as illustrated in the 
type example just above the exercise, should be insisted upon. 

Chap. VI. Note 1. — This chapter on. factoring is of fundamental im- 
portance and should be thoroughly learned. 

Note 2. — In connection with the factor theorem the solution of equa- 
tions of higher degree than the first by means of factoring might well be 
introduced. One or two lessons devoted to such work would be profitable 
and would compensate the effort by added interest. Exercise CXIII, page 
272, could be used at this point. Care should be taken to select only such 
equations as have all the roots real. 

Chap. VII . Note 1. — This chapter contains two distinct methods for 
finding the highest common factor, and two corresponding methods for 
lowest common multiple. Case I, viz., the method by factoring, is the only 
one that the ordinary student of mathematics will ever be called upon to 
use in his subsequent work. This method is easy, and should be mastered. 

Note 2. — The method given in articles 102 to 105 is out of place in a 
course in elementary algebra, for the following reasons : 

(1) The proof of the method is too abstract and difficult for begin- 
ners, and is practically never mastered by them. Its proper place is in 
advanced courses of mathematics, in the University. 

(2) The pupil does not need it in his subsequent work, and may pursue 
the science of mathematics to the end of his university course and never 
have occasion to use it except on artificial problems manufactured espe- 
cially for the occasion. 

Note 3. — Omit articles 102-105, exercise L, and article 109, exercise 
LII. 

Chap. VIII. Note 1. — Omit example 3 of section 112, and examples 
23-25 of exercise LIII. 

Note 2. — Omit page 137, examples 12-15 of exercise LXII, and ex- 
amples 27-37 of exercise LXIII. 

Chap. IX. Note.— Omit articles 136 and 137. 

Chap. X. Note 1. — For the work in graphs, paper ruled in quarter- 
inch squares and sold usually in local stores at five cents for a "Student's 
Note Book" of about fifty pages, will be found very satisfactory. 

Note 2. — In teaching graphs the idea of locus should be emphasized. 
The pupil should learn to think of the graph as the path of a moving 
point which is restricted in its movement by the law stated in the given 
equation. In the development of the subject this is accomplished by mak- 
ing use of many questions similar to the following : "If a point be free to 
move except for the restriction that its x-coordinate shall always be equal 
to zero, where can it go?" "If a point be free to move except for the re- 
striction that its ^/-coordinate shall always be equal to one, where can 
it go?" "If a point be free to move except for the restriction that its 
^-coordinate shall always be equal to its i/-coordinate, where can it go?" 
etc. By means of such questions the pupil is led to conceive of the graphs 
of the equations x = 0, y = l, x — y = 0, etc., as lines of indefinite length — a 
concept that is not so readily obtained in any other way. Again, em- 
phasis of the locus idea gives the pupil power in seeing the relations of 
variables and the relative changes brought about by changes in the va- 
riables. 

Chap. XIII. Note. — Do not spend much time on this chapter. 

Chap. XIV. Note 1. — Special attention should be given to the bi- 
nomial theorem contained in articles 172 and 173. Solve all of the ex- 
amples in exercise LXXXVII. In solving these examples insist upon the 



Courses of Study. 25 

use of parantheses in the first expansion as illustrated in the type form' 
given above the exercise. . , , , , . , -, ■, , 

Note 2.— Omit articles 179 and 1§0. Special attention should be given 
to the finding of arithmetic square root, but no time should be wasted in 
introducing any work in cube root. The pupil will find out later that 
arithmetic roots higher than the second can be found much more easily 
by the use of logarithms. 

Chap. XV. Note 1. — Omit examples 22-27 of exercise GUI, all of ar- 
ticle 202, and examples 42 and 44 of exercise CVI. 

Note 2. — In connection with exercise CV, it should be impressed upon 
the mind of the pupil that the new equation obtained by squaring or 
cubing the two members of a given equation will, in general, have roots 
that do not satisfy the given equation, and that, therefore, the checking 
of every solution is imperative. The author has wisely pointed this out 
on page 245 and in example 2, on page 246, and it is deserving of em- 
phasis. 

Chap. XVIII. Note 1. — Observe that emphasis is again laid upon the 
check in solving irrational quadratic equations. 

Note 2. — The method of factoring should be presented early, in order 
to show the character of the problem and the existence of the two roots. 
The "pupil should clearly understand that relatively few simple problems 
are solvable by the method of factoring. 

Note 3. — In order to avoid confusion of methods, it is best that the be- 
ginner be taught but one method of completing the square of a quadratic 
equation. Experience has shown that the method of completing the 
square after dividing through by the coefficient of x^ is the easiest for the 
pupil to remember. This method should therefore be taught, to the ex- 
clusion of all others. 

Note 4. — After the pupil has been thoroughly drilled in the above- 
mentioned method of completing the square, he should be taught the 
formula of article 225. He should be convinced by numerous examples 
that the quickest way to solve a quadratic equation is to use the formula. 
The pupil should habitually use the formula in his subsequent work when- 
ever he has a quadratic equation to solve. 

Note 5. — The clear understanding gained by the use of graphs more 
than compensates for the time required to learn the graphical method. 

Chap. XIX. Note.— Omit articles 245, 246, 247 and 249, but be careful 
not to omit article 248. 

Chap. XX. Note. — Solve every problem in this chapter except those 
(if any) which necessitate a knowledge of the articles omitted from the 
preceding chapter. 

Chap. XXI. Note. — This chapter should be read in connection with 
pages 90-97 of book III of Phillips and Fisher's Geometry. 

Chap. XXII. Note.— Omit articles 262, 265 and 270. 

Chap. XXIII. Note.^Omit the entire chapter. 

Chap. XXIV. Note. — If time permits, make use of examples 1-21 of 
exercise CXLV for practice. If not, omit the entire chapter. 

Chap. XXV. Note. — Omit the entire chapter. This chapter should be 
studied in connection with the course in trigonometry. 

PLANE GEOMETRY. One unit. 

The text-book in geometry adopted for use in the high schools of 
Kansas is Phillips and Fisher's Elements of Geometry, abridged edition. 
This text-book is so small and the number of exercises so limited, that all 
the book contains on plane geometry can easily be completed in one 
school year. Some schools and teachers will doubtless be able to com- 
plete books I- VI in one year, leaving books VII-IX to be completed in 
another half-year. The miscellaneous exercises on pages 333 and 334 
should be taken in connection with the specific books they are intended 



26 High School 

to supplement, and not left until the end of the course. Exercises XLIX 
and LI (page 336) are not well suited to this grade of work and should 
be omitted. 

One of the chief difficulties with which both teachers and pupils have 
to contend in the ordinary course in high-school geometry is that the 
pupils are called upon to acquire at one and the same time the elementary 
ideas of geometry, the terminology of geometry, and a knowledge of the 
nature and meaning of a logical proof. This difficulty would be largely 
overcome if these tasks were separated, so that the pupil could acquire 
his geometric ideas and vocabulary a year or more in advance of his 
undertaking the study of demonstrative geometry. 

Concrete Geometry in the Grades. As long ago as 1892 the Com- 
mittee of Ten, influenced by the mathematical curriculum of the schools 
of continental Europe, recommended that systematic instruction in con- 
crete (intuitional, non-demonstrative) geometry be given in the gram- 
mar grades. (See the Report of the Committee of Ten.) 

Besides the above-mentioned difficulty in the teaching of the ordinary 
course in high-school geometry, there are weighty reasons for the in- 
troduction of some elementary geometry in the grammar grades. A very 
large percentage of the children in these grades never reach the high 
school. From their ranks is largely recruited the army of mechanics 
and skilled laborers of all kinds. A knowledge of the simpler facts of 
geometry is extremely useful in after-life to large numbers of people 
of this class. The public-school system should therefore be adapted to 
their needs and they should be given an opportunity to acquire in their 
school days this useful knowledge. 

Concrete geometry is in its nature less abstract than many of the 
arithmetical theories usually taught in these grades, and is therefore 
better suited to the immature minds of the pupils than the more difficult 
processes of analysis which make up so large a part of the course in 
arithmetic. 

It may be objected that the above suggestions are innovations which 
are contrary to the traditional course in geometry in American and 
English schools; but the experience of continental Europe has established 
its practicability so thoroughly that its superiority to the common method 
cannot be denied. The same thing is being done in many schools in this 
country with absolute success. 

A few words on the various methods of introducing this study into 
the grammar grades. 

Blocks and Models. Mensuration is not the last topic that should be 
taken up in the course in arithmetic, but work on this subject should be 
carried on throughout the seventh and eighth grades. A good set of 
geometrical blocks and models can be used here with great profit to the 
pupils. Such a set can be purchased for a small amount. (One of the 
best sets on the market is sold by W. D. Ross, Fremont, Ohio, for $12.) 

The amount of geometrical knowledge to be acquired from such a set 
of blocks, or from the subject of mensuration illustrated by blocks, is a 
good preparation for high-school or demonstrative geometry. 

Geometrical Drawing. Closely connected with concrete geometry on 
the one hand, and on the other associated with the manual-training idea, 
is the subject of geometrical drawing. This might be taken up in con- 
nection with the work in free-hand drawing or in manual training. All 
the essentials of the course in concrete geometry advocated above might 
be given in a course in geometrical drawing. 

The necessary outfit is very simple; the pupil should provide himself 
with a pair of compasses, a ruler, a protractor, and a small drawing- 
board. The following sample outfit will be found very satisfactory. 

The Eagle compasses, No. 569, price twenty-five cents. 

A hardwood ruler with inches and fractions on one edge and centi- 
meters on the other edge, five cents. 

A German silver protractor, twenty-five cents; paper ones, thirty cents 
a dozen. 



Courses of Study. 27 

The Springfield drawing kit, thirty cents. (Western agents, Hoover 
Bros., Kansas City.) , ,^ , -.^ :„ the use of these simple tools, and 
thr^^fth^ pvT-'etorLS.,iSLte a la..e fund of useful geo- 

-mp+ripal knowledge. . . 

PKOB.EMS OP CONSXKUCTION. These t 13 s^^^^^^^ 

with the ordinary course m ^^^f ^^-^i^^^^^.f ^^not Eve?y problem of con- 
pupils have previously learned their use oi ^o^„, ,^;^J^refully drawn on 
ffiction in Phillips and Fisher's ff ,^f JJ^f^^^Lnd will perm^^^^ With 
suitable paper, and as accurately as the tools at na^a P ^^ 

the simple outfit described above a very high degree oi /^^^t^cal 

obtained. It is not enough f«^ *^ PX^^'^^t^^^^^ theory to actual 

construction; he shou d also be ^f^J^n-pnT that the pupil be able to tell 
practice. For example, it is ^9^ J^^^^^^^V^ gum of ?So given squares, 
Kow to construct a square .jq^^;\^l,^"\t^^ecumtely and neatly. The accu- 

Zheii ilttl tlSra^re°^afie\rt1ll\^^^^^^^ c^n tfing; they 

Sfsf ^e able to doT It should be the same m geometry. 

TEXT-BOOKS IN ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY. There are a^n^^^^^^ 

Sb^Lt^£ai%"f^^^^^ 

^IrSZ' l^/llalfmrn^n-rS^^^^^^^^ ^" ^- B-chard & 



Co., Boston, Mass. 



"TheCt r mentioned i. the best for young cMldren in the Jow- 
S^S- pu1,t%U1f wradaye-d il Z 'u^p'ofgiJ^L. ..ades of the 
first year of the high school. 

SOLID GEOMETRY. One-half unit. 
Solid geometry, one-half unit 'f -^„tat^to'?Ko!lege*o? Artf and 

ri3"SS=nrdVat^T"arnf p^otiCll/rdill's lor adm^ission to 

the College offer solid geometry fo^,??*j;^",^- ,„^ including the miscella- 
neot'i exir^^'i 'a? tre^'en'd'o'flh^e f^^'f ^1 }/ "S^J °'''' 
models is urged, and accurate drawings should be s^ ^y construct 

vational Geometry (American Book Company). 

FOURTH-YEAR MATHEMATICS. 

At present only - J:- W^VefeSllr^lanf frlg^n^^Sr^'an^ 
Sr-eS »el\?Uf S. .^f bj3^^^^^^^^ 

among the .fifteen ""'te^'qw^d te ^^t^^^^^ the state to 

fiS':!S:e^^J^f^^tslltp^pS^^- Vhere both are taught. 
trigonometry should precede college algebra. 



28 High School 

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. One-half unit. 

Ashton and Marsh's Trigonometry is used at the University as the 
text-book for this course, and in amount of work and order of treatment 
the course in the high schools should conform to the plane trigonometry 
(pp. 1-115) of the above-named text-book, except that sections 24 to 28, 
inclusive, may be omitted. An equivalent amount of work taken from 
any standard text will be acceptable. 

It is of fundamental importance that pupils obtain clear ideas of the 
trigonometric functions when they are presented. For that reason there 
should be some work with ruler and protractor at the first of the course. 
For example, to begin the course, develop by comparison of similar tri- 
angles the fact that in any right triangle the two acute angles and the 
six ratios_ of the sides are eight quantities so related that if any one of 
them is given the other seven are fixed. Pupils should then be given ex- 
ercises in finding by actual measurement the ratios when an angle is 
given, and the angles and the other ratios when one of the ratios is given. 
They should next construct angles varying by five degrees from zero to 
ninety degrees and determine by measurement the approximate values of 
their trigonometric ratios. It will be found helpful to make the construc- 
tions upon squared paper. The results should be tabulated in the form 
of a table of natural functions and handed in for the instructor's exam- 
ination. A reasonable amount of such work will be found very profitable. 

It should be made clear to pupils that the use of logarithms is not 
necessary for the solution of trigonometrical problems, but that it is for 
convenience. They should be led to see that the use of logarithms, by 
substituting addition and subtraction for multiplication and division, 
economizes both time and labor. Problems, therefore, should be solved 
by use of the tables of natural functions before logarithms are intro- 
duced. The study of the theory and use of logarithms should be taken 
up in connection with the trigonometry at the time it is needed. 

COLLEGE ALGEBRA. One-half unit. 

The term "college algebra" in the past has stood for the most in- 
definite thing in the whole mathematical curriculum of American schools. 
The list of subjects in the various text-books on college algebra bear evi- 
dence to the same fact. The recent action of the joint committee men- 
tioned in the University catalogue under "Entrance Requirements in 
Mathematics" has done much to standardize this course. 

A half-unit of college algebra, to be accepted by the University, must 
conform as closely as possible to the outline printed in the University 
catalogue. The topic, permutations and combinations, may be omitted at 
the discretion of the teacher. All subjects involving infinite series should 
be omitted and the stress chiefly placed on complex numbers, determi- 
nants, the theory of equations, and their application. 

In the solution of numerical equations, the roots should be located by 
means of the graph and their approximate values found by Horner's 
method. Sturm's theorem should not be given. The algebraic solutions 
of the cubic and quartic may be included if time permits, but they are not 
required. 

General Remarks. The modern tendency in mathematical instruc- 
tion in secondary schools of the country is toward unification of the 
various branches of the science and its correlation with allied sciences. 
The teacher should always hold in mind that arithmetic, algebra and 
geoinetry are not separate sciences, but closely connected branches of 
one science, viz., mathematics. The arithmetic, algebra and geometry 
should be intermingled as intimately as possible. Many problems of 
algebra should be geometrical in character, and many problems in geom- 
etry should be solved by algebra. The unity and not the divergency of 
the science should be emphasized. In the high-school course mathematics 
and physics have contact at many points, or, rather, they interpenetrate 



Courses of Study. 29 

each other in many regions. Both should be taught in such a way as to 
emphasize this relationship. 

The order in which the subjects are taught must be governed by local 
consideration. As matters now stand in most Kansas schools, it is be- 
lieved that the best temporary arrangement is as follows: 

First year. — -Algebra to quadratic equations or thereabouts. 

Second year.— Plane geometry. 

Third year. — Algebra with required work completed, and solid geom- 
etry. 

Fourth year. — Plane trigonometry and college algebra. 



30 High School 



Group III. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGES. 

LATIN. F:mr units. 

Either three or four of the following units may be offered : 

1. The Beginner's Book. 

2. Four books of C£esar and Latin prose composition. 

3. Six orations of Cicero and Latin prose composition. 

4. Six books of Virgil's ^neid and Latin prose composition. 

A full year must be given to each of these units. No credit is .i;iven 
for one or two units, unless the deficiency is made good after the <^ladent 
enters the University, or unless he enters with three units of German. 
If three units are offered, it is preferred that they be 1, 2 and 3; but 1, 
2 and 4 will be accepted. No combination of Cicero and Virgil will be 
accepted as one unit. 

The Beginner's Book. The all-important thing in the first year is 
that the pupil shall acquire a perfect knowledge of the forms of de- 
clension and conjugation. This means the ability not merely to repeat 
the paradigms correctly, easily, and rapidly, but to recognize instantly 
and certainly each case and verb form when met in isolation. Vocabu- 
lary and syntax are important, too, but they can be learned in later years, 
while a pupil who gets through the first year without learning the forms 
has little prospect of ever learning them. And no pupil who has to stop 
and think out or look up the identity of the forms he meets in his reading 
can ever read easily. There is only one way to teach this command of 
forms, namely, drill — drill at the first occurrance of a paradigm, drill in 
the regular reviews, drill at unexpected times all through the year. The 
teacher who cannot stand the drudgery of drills ought not to teach be- 
ginning Latin. Analysis into stems and endings may help some pupils a 
little, but it cannot take the place of thorough drilling. Besides the fre- 
quent repetition of paradigms, there must be many exercises in the recog- 
nition of isolated forms, given either orally or on the board. No begin- 
ner's book gives more of these exercises than are sufficient to serve as 
models. 

In the first year the pronunciation is fixed, and it is as easy to fix a 
right one as a wrong one. The Roman method is of course the only one 
possible at present. A perfectly accurate pronunciation requires that 
long vowels be given twice the time given to short vowels, whether ac- 
cented or not. This is contrary to English usage, and, for this reason, is 
so difficult that few teachers attempt it. But it is very easy to distin- 
guish in quality between long and short vowels, especially as most pre- 
paratory books indicate the quantities; and there can be no possible ex- 
cuse for permitting incorrect accents. Requiring pupils to mark the long 
vowels in all written work is helpful, but will have no effect if they hear 
and use an incorrect pronunciation. The teacher should spare no pains 
in perfecting his own pronunciation; and he should always read to the 
class the Latin words in the next day's lesson, and make sure that every 
pupil knows the correct pronunciation of every word before he learns it. 

A good feature of the book adopted for use in the high schools of this 
state is the connected passages of easy Latin scattered through the book 
as reading lessons. Under no circumstances should these be omitted.. 



Courses of Study. 31 

The transition from a beginner's book to Caesar is difficult at best, and 
all the more so if the pupil has read no connected Latin in his first year. 
C^SAR. If the work of the first year has been done well, C«sar is not 
too difficult an author to follow the beginner's book immediately. If 
Cjesar is read intelligently, he is very far from being too dull and mo- 
notonous for a year's work. Under these conditions, it is best to read, 
without substitution, four books of Caesar, or selections from the entire 
seven books equivalent in amount to the first four. Books V-VII are 
more interesting than books I-IV, and the teacher who is weary of I-IV 
mav well omit portions of them, especially I, 30-55, and substitute por- 
tions of the later books, as V, 1-24; V, 24-52; VI, 11-28; VII, 66-90. But 
if the teacher desires to make a partial substitution of some other author, 
the University will accept in place of one book of C^sar an equivalent 
amount of Viri Roms or Nepos. Any of the second-year books offer an 
acceptable substitute for Caesar to schools which are not bound by the 
action of the Text-book Commission. 

At the end of the second year the pupil should have an accurate work- 
ing knowledge of all the common uses of the cases and modes. There- 
fore it is unavoidable that a drill on syntactical constructions should re- 
ceive the chief attention during the reading of Cassar. But if Latin 
prose composition is properly emphasized it will carry a large part of 
this burden, and will leave the class some time for getting at the contents 
of Caesar's story. It is a great mistake to make nothing but a gram- 
matical drill-book out of Caesar. 

The teacher will find it helpful to keep on his desk one of the several 
good editions of Cassar. 

Cicero. The six orations should include the four against Catiline and 
the one for the Manilian Law. The one for the Poet Archias may be 
recommended as the sixth. If a partial substitution is desired, Sallust's 
Catiline may be read instead of the Manilian Law and the sixth oration. 
This gives variety in the year's work and makes the setting to the Cati- 
line speeches more vivid. 

The syntactical drill cannot yet be subordinated, but it ought not to 
require so much time as during the second year. Pupils should make 
written abstracts of the speeches, so that they may get the contents of 
each as a whole; should be encouraged to read the Latin aloud with rhe- 
torical emphasis; and should in every possible way be led to appreciate 
the fact that they are reading great speeches, not disconnected pages of 
Latin sentences. 

Virgil. If the pupil has come up to the study of Virgil without a 
good working knowledge of declension and conjugation forms and of case 
and mode uses, he is to be pitied. There ought to be too much to do to 
permit of much grammatical drill. This is the reason why Virgil ought 
always to follow Cicero in the course, not precede. Opinions may differ 
as to whether pupils find Cicero and Virgil the more difficult, although a 
comparison of scholarly editions will prove that editors at least find 
Virgil vastly the more difficult. But while reading Cicero any teacher 
can find plenty of time for grammatical drill; while reading Virgil he 
ought not to be able to do so. And in his third year of Latin a pupil 
must have grammatical drill. If read in the fourth year, grammatical 
drill may be confined almost wholly to the period devoted to Latin prose 
composition. 

First and foremost, the pupil should get the contents of the story. 
Fortunately few teachers fail to let their pupils do this in Virgil, how- 
ever they may treat Caesar and Cicero. Yet, an occasional college student 
will say that he does not know whether or not he has read the story of 
jEneas's descent to the lower world. Secondly, the pupil must learn to 
read Virgil metrically. This does not mean that he should be taught 
painfully to divide the lines into feet, giving a reason for each step, and 
then be left to imagine that he has thus "scanned" Virgil. He should 



32 High School 

be taught to read the lines as smoothly and intelligently as so much Eng- 
lish poetry; and this is no difficult feat. Only then will he feel that 
Virgil wrote poetry. It is not necessary to learn all the rules of quan- 
tity laid down in the grammars. If he has been taught to discriminate 
between long and short vowels in his usual pronunciation he will have 
no trouble at all. If not, Auxilia Vergiliana, a little pamphlet published 
by Ginn & Co., shows how a few rules, well used, will carry him through 
almost all lines; and an occasional reference to the vocabulary will clear 
up the rest. If the teacher is a convert in theory to the doctrines of 
Hale (as the writer is) or of Bennett, let him nevertheless begin by 
teaching the old-fashioned way, with an ictus on the first syllable of 
each foot, and no word accent. Few pupils will make music of Virgil's 
verse on any other plan. Thirdly, the pupils ought to learn a good deal 
of mythology — not theories about the origin and meanings of the gods, 
but the stories which form so integral a part of much of our English 
literature. In addition to these main topics, there are innumerable ques- 
tions on matters literary and archseological which will occur to the 
teacher who knows the literature of his subject. Many of these will 
serve to interest and stimulate the pupil. 

The teacher will find help in a desk copy of Knapp (Scott, Foresman 
& Co.) or Greenough and Kittridge (Ginn & Co.). 

Latin Prose Composition. Although the goal in the study of Latin 
is the ability to read, rather than to write, the language, yet accurate 
reading is impossible without a good command of vocabulary, form, and 
syntax; and this can be acquired by no other method so surely and 
quickly as by the writing of Latin. 

No manual of prose composition has been adopted by the Text-book 
Commission, and the teacher may therefore choose the one best adapted 
to his needs. There are two systems in vogue. Such books as Jones's 
Exercises in Latin Prose Composition (Scott, Foresman & Co.) and 
Bennett's Latin Composition (Allyn & Bacon) take up the principles of 
syntax in logical order, as they are given in the grammars, and give 
sentences which call for the practical use of these principles. Their 
chief purpose is to insure a systematic study and comprehension of the 
syntactical portion of the grammar. Such books as Daniell's New Latin 
Composition (Sanborn & Co.) and Moulton's Preparatory Latin Com- 
position (Ginn '& Co.) base their exercises closely on the texts of Csesar 
and Cicero, so that the pupil uses the words and constructions found 
in the portion of the text just read. Their chief merits are that they 
give practice in writing connected passages as well as disconnected sen- 
tences, aiid they encourage the pupil to study closely the text he is read- 
ing. But these merits seem outweighed by the fact that they are nec- 
essarily less systematic in presenting the principles of syntax, although 
Daniell's attempts with some success to remedy this defect. If a specific 
recommendation is desired, our preference would be for the whole of 
Bennett, supplemented, if possible, by frequent exercises dictated from 
Daniell. This amount is not too large for the best interests of the pupil, 
since the more composition is emphasized the less needful it is to make 
mere grammatical drill-books of the Latin authors. D'Ooge's Latin 
Composition (Ginn & Co.) is a very successful attempt to combine the 
fnerits of the two methods. 

The requirement of the University is that the equivalent of one period 
a week be given to composition throughout the second, third and fourth 
years. Individual experience must determine how this shall be divided. 
The most usual method, and perhaps the best, is to give it one period a 
week. Sometimes it is scattered out, so that a little is done every day; 
but this is likely to make the work too scrappy and to lead to its neglect. 
A few teachers spend several weeks together on composition alone, usu- 
ally at the end of the year, and justify the plan on the ground that it 
interests the pupils more. This is no doubt true. The dislike felt by 
most pupils for composition is largely or wholly due to the fact that they 
do so little of it that it never becomes easy. But it must be remembered 



Courses of Study. 33 

that composition is practiced as an aid to reading, and this aid is lost 
unless the reading is carried on side by side with the writing. 

If such a book as Daniell's is used, the exercise assigned should always 
be the one based on the portion of the text just read by the class, even 
if some exercises have to be omitted. To let the writing lag far behind 
the reading defeats the purpose of the method. 

Translation. If translation is done well it is a better training in 
English expression than can be obtained from original composition on 
the part of the pupil; for in original composition he can usually avoid 
expressing at all any idea which he cannot express easily, while in trans- 
lation he is forced to give expression to every idea of his author. There 
is therefore a sad waste of opportunity if the teacher allows himself to 
be satisfied with slipshod, slovenly translation. Yet the mistake is preva- 
lent, for "translation English" has become a synonym for a certain kind 
of language which is never heard outside of the classroom except for 
humorous effect. It consists in part merely of the overworking of some 
very good words and phrases. A modern general might sometimes urge 
or encourage his men: Caesar always exhorted his. We sometimes can- 
not do things; the ancients were always unable to do them. A worse 
feature of "translation English" consists of so-called "literal transla- 
tions" of Latin idioms. Some teachers even require such renderings, 
although monstrosities like "he said himself to be about to go" are not 
English at all, and therefore are not translations. A good classroom 
translation must be good English, and should at the same time show the 
disposition made of each word of the original. If one quality must be 
sacrificed let it be the latter, and let the teacher satisfy himself by ques- 
tions that the pupil understands the Latin. But the pupil cannot always 
make a good translation unaided, even if he understands the Latin. This 
is the best reason for invariably reading the review lessons. On the 
advance lesson he must be expected to stumble and must be helped. But 
on the next day he should be required to read through the lesson as 
smoothly and as perfectly as if he were reading so much English. 

Too many teachers unconsciously have the habit of correcting transla- 
tion by interjecting words and remarks while the pupil reads. If the 
pupil has prepared what he considers a good translation, this practice 
both irritates and discourages him. If he has not, it encourages him to 
prepare his translation in a slipshod way, trusting to hints from the 
teacher to carry him through. In either case, neither the pupil who 
recites nor the rest of the class can fit the teacher's suggestions into the 
pupil's translation. The pupil should always be allowed to read through, 
without suggestion, the portion assigned him, whether a sentence or a 
paragraph. The teacher should then comment on his mistakes, and 
finally should translate the whole properly. 

Subject-matter. A very common and very unfortunate defect in 
teaching is a failure to make sure that the pupil gets a good understand- 
ing of the subject-matter of the Latin authors. To take Csesar, for ex- 
ample. Many pupils, many teachers even, find him dull and monotonous. 
No person could ever hold this opinion if he knew just what Cassar did 
in each of his campaigns, and had taken the pains to study out his routes, 
his battle-fields, his methods, and his motives. But no history ever writ- 
ten would be interesting if read at the rate of half a page a day and 
studied solely from the point of view of his syntax. The language of 
Caesar must be the main object of attention; but the pupil ought to know 
the story as he reads it, ought to appreciate the bearing of every new chap- 
ter on the whole, ought to trace out all the movements on the map. The 
failure to get such an understanding makes the author dull, makes it 
harder to secure an adequate translation of the passages assigned for the 
daily lessons, and leaves the pupil at the end of his year's work with no 
comprehension that he has been reading one of the world's great classics. 
If the average teacher feels satisfied that his pupils are getting such a 
knowledge of the subject-matter of the authors they are reading, he can 



34 High School 

easily test his results by an examination question. At the end of any 
book of Cassar let him ask his class, without previous warning, to write 
out a narrative of the campaign. To judge by what most college students 
remember of the contents of the preparatory authors, he will be sur- 
prised at the answers, if he gets any. 

The surest and best method of giving pupils this knowledge of the 
subject-matter is requiring them to write out in note-books brief sum- 
maries of each day's lesson, as a part of the next- day's work. This 
should be supplemented by brief discussions, and by questions during the 
daily recitations and in examinations. It goes without saying that the 
teacher himself must have a full comprehension of the subject-matter; 
and this he certainly will not have unless he makes a practice of reading 
at a sitting a whole campaign of Caesar, a whole oration of Cicero, or a 
whole book of Virgil. He will be much helped, too, by reading one or 
more of the books which are mentioned later. 

Sight-reading. Sight-reading has its value, though it has been over- 
estimated. It is not worth doing at the expense of other things; but if 
there are a few minutes to spare at the end of the recitation, they may be 
well employed by letting the class read on into the next day's lesson with- 
out using either notes or vocabulary. This is better than taking Latin 
from some other source, because what is learned is fixed in the memory 
when the pupils read the passage again in preparation for the next day's 
recitation, and because it insures the attention of the whole class. 

Books. The following list contains a few of the books which, in our 
judgment, will be found most useful in the library of the high school or 
the teacher; the prices are quoted from the Publishers' Trade List An- 
nual : 

C^SAR. 

Holmes, Csesar's Conquest of Gaul, Macmillan & Co., $6.50. The best 
discussion of the military and geographical problems in Csesar. 

Fowler, Julius Csesar, G. P. Putnam's Sons, $1.50. Perhaps the best, 
life of Csesar. 

Judson, Cesar's Army, Ginn & Co., $1. 

CICERO, 

Boissier, Cicero and his Friends, G. P. Putnam's Sons, $1.75. 
Forsyth, Life of Cicero, Charles Scribner's Sons, $2.50. 

VIRGIL. 

Conington, Virgil, Macmillan & Co., 3 vols., each $3.25. The best Eng- 
lished edition. Volume II contains ^Slneid I-IV. 

Conington, Virgil's Poems in Prose, Longmans, Green & Co., $2. 

Dryden, Translation, several editions. 

Sellar, Virgil, Oxford Press, $2.25. The best literary criticism. 

Glover, Studies in Virgil, Edward Arnold, $2.25. Most helpful and 
suggestive. 

GRAMMARS. 

The teacher should have all the grammars commonly referred to, and 
especially Harkness' Complete Latin Grammar (1898), as a corrective to 
the 1881 edition adopted for use in the state. 

LEXICONS. 

Harpers' Latin Dictionary, American Book Company, $6.50. 
Lewis, Elementary Latin Dictionary, American Book Company, $2. 
White, English-Latin Dictionary, Ginn & Co., $1.50. 

DICTIONARIES OP ANTIQUITIES. 

Harpers' Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, American 
Book Company, $6 to $10. 

Seyffert, Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, Macmillan & Co., $2.25. 
One or the other these books is almost indispensable. 



Courses of Study. 35 



ATLASES. 



Ginn's Classical Atlas, Ginn & Co., $1.25 to $2. 
Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Sanborn & Co., $2.50. 
Sanborn's Classical Atlas, Sanborn & Co., $1 to $1.75. 

WALL MAPS. 

Kiepert, get price-list from Rand, McNally & Co. The best and most 
expensive. Cheaper maps are advertised by the Boston School Supply 
Company, but the department has not examined them. 

HISTORY. 

(See the department of history.) 

HISTORIES OF LITERATURE. 

Cruttwell, History of Roman Literature, Charles Scribner's Sons, 
$2.50. 

Mackail, Latin Literature, Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.25. This is 
itself a work of literature. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

Gayley, Classic Myths in English Literature, Ginn & Co., $1.50. 
Guerber, Myths of Greece and Rome, American Book Company, $1.50. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Bennett and Bristol, The Teaching of Latin and Greek, Longmans, 
Green & Co., $1.50. 

Hale, Art of Reading Latin, Ginn & Co., 25 cents. 

Johnston, Private Life of the Romans, Scott, Foresman & Co., $1.50. 

Johnston, Teaching of Second-year Latin, Scott, Foresman & Co., free. 

GREEK. Three units. 

1. Elementary Greek. Gleason's Greek Primer or White's First Greek 
Book, or an equivalent. Thorough mastery of declensions and conjuga- 
tions, and the main ideas of syntax. Xenophon's Anabasis begun, and 
twenty to thirty pages read. Goodwin's, Babbitt's or Goodell's Greek 
Grammar. 

2. Xenophon's Anabasis continued into or through the fourth book, 
or an equivalent amount of other Attic prose. Review of inflections. 
Systematic study of syntax in the grammar. Practice in writing Greek 
based on the text read. Constant training in sight-reading. 

3. Homer's Iliad or Odyssey, five to six books, exclusive of the Cata- 
logue of Ships. Special attention to Homeric forms, vocabulary, and 
scansion. Constant practice in reading at sight. Seymour's School Iliad 
or Benner's Selections from Homer's Iliad. Perrin & Seymour's School 
Odyssey (edition with eight books). Attic prose composition once a 
week. Bonner's Greek Composition for schools. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

Special attention should be paid to the regular forms and construc- 
tions, the most common words and phrases and principles, leaving the 
irregular or uncommon to be learned when they occur in reading. Re- 
quire a firm grasp of the essentials. Review and repeat, but not to 
weariness. Go slowly at first, yet aim to get results as fast as possible. 

Help students to acquire a vocabulary, by grouping words when pos- 
sible, by bringing out the English derivatives, by having them mark in 
both text and grammar words or principles especially to be learned, 
and then review them often. Don't allow a student to turn to his lexicon 
or grammar to look up a word or principle until he is sure that it is 
necessary. Have him, if possible, originate some device of his own to 
remember the meanings of words. 

Go over as much as possible of the advance lesson each day. Have 
students pronounce and translate at sight; watch and teach or guide thsm 



36 High School 

how to read, leading them to bring forth and apply meanings of words 
and forms and principles of syntax they have already had and know. 
Explain as much as necessary, but leave something for them to do. 

Have students translate the words of a sentence in the order in which 
they stand in the original, and make good English afterwards. In read- 
ing poetry let them use a poetic order. 

Use the blackboard much; let the students see what is necessary. 

Yet train the ear also. Have some oral work every day. Have stu- 
dents pronounce aloud, and let them translate some from hearing, espe- 
cially passages already translated from the book. If possible, introduce 
some conversational exercises, and have students learn some Greek by 
heart. 

Require a knowledge of the geography, history and mythology needed 
to understand the author being read, and something of his life, time and 
works. 

A few books that ought to be at command of students and teachers : 

Lord's Classical Atlas, Boston, Sanborn, $1 to $1.75. 

Botsford's History of Greece, New York, Macmillan, $1.10. 

Bury's History of Greece, New York, Macmillan, $1.90. 

Pennell's Ancient Greece, Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 60 cents. 

Butler's Story of Athens, New York, Century Company, $2.40. 

Jebb's Primer of Greek Literature, New York, Appleton, 40 cents. 

Capp's Homer to Theocritus (a history of Greek literature), New 
York, Scribners, $1.50. 

Jebb's Homer, an Introduction to the Iliad and Odyssey, Boston, Ginn, 
$1 12 

Goodell's Greek Lessons, New York, Holt, $1.25. 

Gulik's Life of the Ancient Greeks, New York, Appleton, $1.40. 

Harpers' Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities, New York, 
Harpers, $6 to $10. 

Liddell & Scott's Greek Lexicon, New York, American Book Com- 
pany, $10. 

Hill's Illustrations to School Classics, New York, Macmillan, $2.50. 

Tarbell's History of Greek Art, New York, Macmillan, $1. 

Schuchhardt's Schliemann's Excavations, New York, Macmillan, $4. 

Tsoundas and Manatt's Mycenaean Age, New York, Houghton, Mifflin 
& Co., $6. 

Mycenaean Troy, Tolman and Scoggin, New York, American Book 
Company, $1. 

Weissenborn's Homeric Life, New York, American Book Company, $1. 

Leaf and Bayfield's Iliad with notes. New York, Macmillan, 2 vols., 
each $1.40. 

Moss's First Greek Reader, new edition, Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 70 
cents. 

Dickinson's Greek View of Life, London, Methuen, $1. 

GERMAN. A three years' course. 

FIRST YEAR. 

Text-books Suggested.* Carruth's Otis's German Grammar, Henry 
Holt & Co., New York (supplemented if desired by further exercises in 
Becker's Elements of German, Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago), and 
Carruth's German Reader, Ginn & Co., Boston. 

* The books recently adopted by the School Text-book Commission serve only for 
a part of the first two years. Unfortunately the law was not drawn with a view to 
two- and three-year courses, and accordingly the Commission has adopted a book of 
exercises but no reader. Practically, every teacher of German uses a grammar and 
a reader in the first year. Accordingly, the course here recommended introduces the 
state text in grammar, makes a place for the exercise book for those, who use such 
in addition, and outlines the work in a reader. The detailed programs of work are 
given only for the benefit of new teachers, though they may be found helpful to all. 
Of course, experienced teachers will adapt any such plan to the needs of individuals 
and classes. In any case, it is wise to explain in advance to the class the purpose of 
the work, the method to be pursued, and the general distribution of it. 



Courses of Study. *37 

Objects of First Year's Work. (1) To obtain a thorough knowledge 
of elementary grammar with practical application to the prmted and 
spoken language; (2) to obtain a good German pronunciation and ability 
to use German script with accuracy and moderate ease; (3) to acquire 
familiarity with a limited German vocabulary as employed both m stand- 
ard German prose and in ordinary conversation; (4) to begin an ac- 
quaintance with good German literature and with German popular songs; 
(5) to learn to carry on conversation in very simple German on every- 
day topics. 

Distribution of the Work. There should be a German recitation 
every school-day of the thirty-four working weeks of the school year. 
These 170 recitation periods may wisely be distributed as follows : 
Introductory (talk about the language, illustrations, intro- 
ducing phrases for conducting recitation in German, pro- 
nunciation, etc., lesson I of the grammar) ^5 periods. 

Grammar (nineteen lessons, two periods to each) 38 ^^ 

Review of grammar 18 

Reader (sixty pages, from one-half page daily to two pages ^^ 

daily, including review) 44 

Exercises (in reader or in state text, or both, including re- ^^ 

views) 28 ^^ 

Dictations and learning songs 22 ^^ 

Final review • ^^ 

Total 170 periods. 

program of the work — FIRST TERM. 

First week: Introduction (lesson I) 5 periods. 

Second week to fifth, inclusive: Grammar, five lessons (in- 
cluding VI) , ten recitations, with ten more for review. ... 20 " 

Sixth week to seventeenth, inclusive: Grammar, three pe- 
riods weekly first six weeks, two periods weekly last six 
weeks, to lesson XIII, inclusive; fourteen periods first 
time, sixteen on review. 30 

Reader^ two periods weekly for twelve weeks, divided be- 
tween reading and exercises on the reading, covering 
fifteen pages of Carruth's Reader 24 " 

Dictations, one weekly, last six weeks 6 " 

Total 85 periods. 

Conduct of Lesson II in Carruth's Otis's Grammar. First recita- 
tion (after a week of introductory drill in pronunciation). Assign to 
the German exercise II, and in assigning read over slowly and carefully 
the model sentence, § 2, and the words of the vocabulary. (This practice 
of reading the vocabulary should be kept up for the first eight lessons.) 
Admonish class to read" the German sentences over aloud in studying 
them. 

Recitation. — Require the recitation of the model sentence from mem- 
ory; be sure that the pupils understand the cases and their uses. Call 
for the statement of the grammatical facts included in the text of the 
lesson. Have the class recite the definite article, singly and in concert; 
have the declension given both downward and across; that is, by genders 
and by cases. 

Note. — In connected speech the e of the article is slurred (see page 6 of the 
grammar), but in recitation of the forms the e should be pronounced distinctly, long 
before m and n, short before r and s. 

The vocabulary may be read, or the German words required on giving 
the English; or, in case of the nouns, the pupils may be required to give 
the correct article with the noun when the teacher has spoken the noun 
alone. The class should recite the present tense of sein singly and in 
concert. 



38 High School 

Second Recitation on Lesson II. Assign German exercise II and 
the writing, in German script, of one-half of exercise 2, the preparation 
of continuations of the specimen sentences in conversation 1, the memo- 
rizing of the Sprichwort and the poem Das Glueck. In assigning the 
lesson these should be pronounced by the teacher. Also a review of the 
forms of the definite article and present tense of sein. 

Recitation. — Have sentences of the German exercise read by pupils in 
turn. The pupils may turn them into English, or simply be asked about 
the forms of the articles used, or both. In the first lesson, constant at- 
tention must be paid to pronunciation in reading the German - sentences. 
It is a good exercise to read the German sentences slowly and have the 
pupils repeat them after the teacher. It cultivates the ear and promotes 
attention. Then send pupils to board to copy from their papers the sen- 
tences of exercise 2. When all are written, go over the sentences on the 
board and correct, asking class to suggest corrections and explaining, and 
requiring pupils to make corrections accordingly on their own papers. At 
close of recitation the teacher should take up these papers and correct 
them carefully, to return at the next recitation. 

Note. — The teacher should take up and correct the papers himself for at least 
the first eight lessons. After that the class may be trusted to make its corrections in 
the class, but the papers should be taken up once a week throughout the first year. 

Recite again, and have some of the pupils write on board, the definite 
article and the present tense of sein. Use conversation 1, the teacher 
asking the questions and requiring the pupils to reply, using the entire 
vocabulary to the conversation. Have the Sprichwort and the poem re- 
cited in concert. 

Lesson III. Assign second half of English exercise 2 in lesson II, and 
to the German exercise of lesson III, for one recitation. In this recita- 
tion the first half of the English exercise 2 of lesson II is given back 
corrected. 

The second recitation on lesson III will be assigned as on the second 
half of lesson II, that is, German exercise III and first half of English 
exercise 3, but in addition the pupils have been required to learn the now 
corrected sentences of the first half of the English exercise 2, and recite 
them in response to the reading of the English by the teacher. In learn- 
ing these sentences pupils should copy them as corrected into a permanent 
exercise book. The learning and memorizing of the corrected sentences is 
one of the most essential features of the lesson. Thus, in every recita- 
tion there will come the correction of one-half of an English-Gefman ex- 
ercise and the recitation of one-half of the one preceding. It is important 
that the principles, vocabulary and paradigms of each lesson should be 
thoroughly learned before translating the English exercise. The transla- 
tion of the English sentences should always be made a means and never 
an end in the study of the lesson. 

The most dispensable part of the recitation is the reciting of the words 
of the vocabulary. When a German song is to be learned and sung, as in 
lessons III, VII, and IX, the memorizing may be done along with the sec- 
ond half of that lesson and the singing in the first part of the next recita- 
tion. The favorite songs should be sung frequently. There is no better 
means of rousing love for the language and fixing the vocabulary in the 
pupil's memory. Or the singing of the songs may take part of the period 
assigned to dictations. 

First Reading Lesson. For the first reading lesson assign fourteen 
lines in Carruth's Reader. Read it over in German in assigning it. In 
recitation, have the pupil read the German sentence through first; cor- 
rect him, and have him read it again before translating. Translation 
should always be in good idiomatic English, and as nearly literal as this 
will permit. Do not permit a word-for-word translation except as neces- 
sary to explain a German idiom. By all means require translation. 
Reading without translation should not be encouraged the first year, un- 
less it be with extra matter. Discourage marginal and interlinear notes. 



Courses of Study. 



39 



Exercises. — The exercises connected with the reader may be taken up 
one at a tirne just after the reading of the corresponding section, or all 
those on a given extract may be taken in connected series, or they may be 
postponed until the completion of the work in the reader. Whether the 
exercises are taken from the reader or from Becker's Elements of Ger- 
man, they, should be written and corrected and learned as prescribed for 
the exercises of the grammar. In the second term, however, the class may 
be occasionally tested for its ability to do an exercise orally without 
having written it previously. But, even then, the exercises should be 
written out afterwards. Writing makes an exact scholar. Neatness in 
writing should be insisted upon. Exercises should have wide spacing and 
ample margins, to make room for corrections. 

Dictations.— Dictations should consist of very simple German. A sen- 
tence should be read through twice, once very slowly and then at normal 
rate, and the pupil should be expected to fix the sentence as thus read. 
If the sentence is complex, the teacher will have to repeat the clauses in 
order. Dictations should be handed in for inspection and correction. 
Occasionally the pupils should be required to read aloud from their own 
manuscripts. 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORK SECOND TEEM^ FIRST YEAR. 

Grammar (six lessons of Carruth's Otis, XIV to XIX, in- 
clusive, including review) 16 periods. 

Reader, (forty-eight to sixty pages, through Der zerbrochene 

Krug in Carruth's Reader) 32 " 

Exercises (completing XXXVI in Carruth's Reader) 16 " 

Dictations and songs 16 " 

Review 5 " 

Total 85 periods. 

PROGRAM OF THE WORK SECOND TERM^ FIRST YEAR. 

Reader, two periods weekly, sixteen weeks 32 periods. 

Grammar, one period weekly, sixteen weeks 16 " 

Exercises, one period weekly, sixteen weeks 16 " 

Dictations and songs, one period weekly, sixteen weeks 16 " 

Review, one week solid 5 " 

Total 85 periods. 

SECOND YEAR. 

Texts. Carruth's Otis's Grammar; Carruth's Reader; Wilhelm Tell, 
Carruth's edition, Macmillan & Co., New York, or Palmer's edition, Holt 
& Co., New York, or Deering's edition, Heath & Co., Boston; for sight- 
reading: Hauff's Der Zwerg Nase (38 pp.), C. H. Kilborn, Boston, Ebner- 
Eschenbach's Krambambuli (47 pp.), American Book Company, Chicago, 
or Heyse's Die Blinden (52 pp.). Holt & Co., New York. 

Work to be Accomplished. Review and completion of grammar; 
reading about 225 pages, with some composition exercises; practice in 
sight-reading. 

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORK SECOND YEAR. 

Review of grammar (lessons II to XIX) 10 periods. 

Completing grammar (lessons XX to XXX) 22 " 

Completing reader, forty-five pages of prose and fifteen 

pages of verse, selected 32 " 

Composition exercises on the same 16 " 

Wilhelm Tell, complete, with review 64 " 

Sight-reading 16 " 

Final review 10 " 

Total 170 periods. 



40 High School 

PROGRAM OP THE WORK FIRST TEEMj SECOND TEAR. 

Completion of grammar, two periods weekly for eleven weeks, 22 periods. 
Completion of reader, two periods weekly for eleven weeks, 

continuing with Wilhelm Tell, act I, five weeks daily 47 " 

Composition exercises on reader, one period weekly for eleven 

weeks 11 " 

General review, one week solid 5 " 

Total 85 periods. 

PROGRAM OF THE WORK SECOND TERM, SECOND TEAR. 

Review of grammar, one period weekly, sixteen weeks 16 periods. 

Completion of Wilhelm Tell, three periods weekly for sixteen 

weeks 48 " 

Sight-reading, one period weekly for sixteen weeks 16 " 

General review, one week solid 5 " 

Total 85 periods. 

Note. — The Committee of Twelve recommends Wilhelm Tell for the intermediate 
course, or third year, of high-school work. For schools having a three-year course 
it may be well to follow this recommendation and occupy the reading time of the 
second year with easy prose, like that found in the reader. But high schools having 
only two years of German should by all means not deprive their pupils of the delight 
of reading this play, which invariably appeals to them. 

THIRD YEAR. 

Texts. Freytag's Die Journalisten, ed. Thomas, Holt & Co., ed. Toy, 
Heath & Co. (about 135 pages) ; Fouque's Undine, ed. v. Jagemann, Holt 
& Co. (about 115 pages) ; Heine's Reisehilder, ed. Van Dael, Heath & 
Co., ed. Burnett, Holt & Co., ed. Gregor, Ginn & Co. (about 90 pages) ; 
Riehl's Burg Neideck, ed. Wilson, Ginn & Co. (57 pages) ; Rosegger's 
Waldschulmeister, ed. Fossler, Holt & Co. (about 125 pages) ; Heyse's 
Die Blinden, ed. Carruth and Engel, Holt & Co. (about 50 pages) ; 
Schiller's Balladen, ed. Johnson, Heath & Co. (about 90 pages). Out of 
these a good selection would be: Freytag's Die Journalisten, Schiller's 
Balladen, and any one of the other books listed. If one of the longer 
ones, a portion may be read at sight. 

Work to be Accomplished. Reading and careful translation of 
about 300 pages of prose and verse, with composition and conversation 
exercises thereon, and drill in more difficult features of grammar as il- 
lustrated by the text. 

Distribution of the Work. A class should read from two or three 
pages daily — the lesser amount when more time is given to exercises on 
the text and to grammar review. Exceptional classes may be able to 
read 400 pages in the third year. In view of the minuteness with which 
programs for "the earlier years have been given, it seems unnecessary 
to make such program for the third year. 

FRENCH. One, two or three units. 

First Unit. The elements of grammar (Eraser and Squair's French 
Grammar), all of part I and the irregular verbs in part II; or Grand- 
gent's Essentials of French Grammar, through the irregular verbs, or 
Aldrich & Foster's Elementary French. 

Great stress should be laid on pronunciation, the quality of the vowels, 
syllabication. To fix these principles and connect sound with spelling, 
brief exercises in dictation, occupying only five or ten minutes, should be 
introduced after the first few weeks. 

As the grammars named above all offer reading material, the reader 
proper need not be introduced before the seventh or eighth week, at first 
but one or two lessons a week, then with increasing frequency as the 
elementary facts of the language are mastered. 

This reading should cover not less than 100 pages of simple French 
(as in Super's Reader), and should serve a threefold purpose: Transla- 



Courses of Study. 41 

tion into good English, practice in reading aloud of French, and illustra- 
tion (and hence review) of the grammatical principles set out in the 
rules and applied in the written exercises. 

Second Unit. Completion of all the lessons in the above-mentioned 
grammars, with suitable written exercises at least once a week. In this 
manner the pupil will by the end of this period have mastered all the 
essentials of accidence and syntax. The reading should contribute to 
this end; in particular, the use of modes and tenses should be repeatedly 
dwelt upon in connection with the reading. 

More emphasis is now to be placed on dictation, and on the speaking 
by teacher and pupils of simple French sentences based on their reading, 
the teacher sometimes also reading aloud in French for translation by 
the pupils. The reading should comprise from 300 to 350 pages, which 
"may be taken from the latter part of the reader and from such texts as 
Malot's Sans Famille, Daudet's Selected Stories, Erckmann-Chatrian's 
Madame Therese, Labiche's le Voyage de M. Perrichon, Sandeau's Mad- 
emoiselle de la Seigliere. 

Third Unit. Thorough review of grammar. Composition once a 
week, both formal grammar exercises and resumes and paraphrases of 
short portions of French stories. 

Suitable composition books are: Mansun's French Syntax and Com- 
position, and Frangois's Advanced French Prose Composition. 

Reading of 600 pages in such works as Merimee's Colomba; A. 
France's le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard; Pouvillon's Petites Am.es; 
George Sand's la Mare an diable; Pailleron's le Monde ou Von s'ennuie; 
Loti's Pecheur d'Islande; Theuriet's Bigarreau; Coppee's le Pater. 

Teachers of French are advised to consult the valuable Report of the 
Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America. 

SPANISH. One Unit. 

1. A mastery of the outlines of grammar, including regular verbs 
and irregular verbs of the radical-changing classes for at least the first 
and second conjugations. Too much effort cannot be given to cultivating 
facility in pronunciation by careful oral drill in exercise work. For 
practical purposes the simplest interpretation of Spanish vowel-sound 
equivalents should be aimed at and insisted upon. Spanish- American 
values of ce, ci, and z, will be accepted in lieu of the Castilian usage for 
these sounds. Grammars suggested: Hills and Ford (Heath), first 33 
lessons; or Ramsey's Spanish Grammar (Holt), first 33 lessons (except 
Nos. 26, 29, 30) ; or Garner's Spanish Grammar (American Book Com- 
pany) through to syntax. 

2. A reading facility offered by about 100 pages of modem Spanish, 
such as may be found in Fontaine's Doce cuentos escogidos (Jenkins) 
or Bransby's Spanish Reader (Heath). 



42 High School 



Group IV. 



PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 

~ PHYSICS. One unit. 

Physics as a subject for high-school instruction has a double advantage 
in that it is both mathematical and experimental. In so far as it is 
mathematical it furnishes a concrete field for the application of the gen- 
eralization of algebra and geometry, and consequently shares with these 
subjects their certainty and their freedom from human bias. As an ex- 
perimental science it has a great advantage in the fact that the observa- 
tions made in the experiments must be vitalized M^ith thought in order 
to be effective. There is in physics no mere staring at phenomena w^ith 
whose appearance the observer has nothing to do, but on the contrary the 
things to be observed are produced by the student himself through the 
experiments he makes. Should the first observation not be conclusive, the 
experiment may be repeated until the student is satisfied that he has not 
only seen but understood. This form of observation offers an excep- 
tionally fine field for self-activity of an educative nature — a field which is 
continually broadened by the ever-increasing laboratory facilities that are 
being provided in public and private high schools. 

Successful teaching of physics requires both text-book work with 
demonstrative and laboratory work. The demonstrative and laboratory 
work are of the utmost importance and are often sadly neglected. The 
laboratory work and text-book work must each supplement the other. 
Without the actual performing of experiments the text-book is almost 
meaningless and soon forgotten. 

In handling any text the teacher should feel free to omit any parts 
which, with the laboratory and demonstration facilities at hand, cannot 
be made perfectly clear. In every good text are found sets of problems. 
If these are sufficiently simple, they are of great use in affording an op- 
portunity- to apply and therefore fix in mind the principles learned. 
AVhen the problems prove difficult it is likely not on account of any de- 
ficiency in the student's mathematical training. The terms used — ergs, 
dynes, kilograms, etc. — are confusingly new. The thing to do is to supply 
exceedingly simple problems till the student becomes familiar with the 
new units. 

The second essential of a course in physics, the experimental part, in- 
cludes, first, a set of thirty to forty experiments to be performed by the 
student; and second, a number of demonstrative experiments to be per- 
formed by the teacher in connection with the lecture or recitation. Just 
which experiments should be performed by the students and which should 
be left for classroom demonstration is often a hard question to decide. 
The rule that demonstrative experiments be qualitative and students' ex- 
periments quantitative is good, but has many exceptions. 

Probably the most difficult task that confronts the physics teacher in 
the small high school is to start the equipment of a laboratory on small 
means. The first maxim is, buy for use and not for show. Buy the less 
expensive first. Get the necessities before the luxuries. Do not begin by 
the purchase of Geisler tubes and X-ray apparatus. 

In offering suggestions in regard to the equipment of a laboratory, let 
us begin with the room itself. This should be dry, well lighted, and, if 
possible, with south exposure. 

The room should be provided with heavy, flat-topped tables, about 



Courses of Study. 43 

thirty-two inches high. The length and breadth of these must often be 
adapted to the shape of the room, but, when possible, tables three feet 
wide and eight feet long will be found very convenient. These tables 
should have no iron in their construction, if possible, and the top should 
project at least three inches. Any good carpenter can make these tables. 

If there is a good water system in the building the laboratory should 
be provided with a sink. If not, a wooden tank a foot deep, two feet wide, 
and three feet long, lined with lead or galvanized iron, will be found con- 
venient. If the laboratory can be supplied with gas, the fixtures should 
hang from the ceiling directly over the tables and about four feet above 
them. Connections can then be made with Bunsen burners by the use of 
rubber tubing. If no gas can be provided, gasoline torches handled with 
care are the best substitute. 

Cases for storing apparatus should be about fourteen inches deep, with 
movable shelves and glass fronts. They should be self-locking, and all 
open with the same key. It is to be noted that hard-rubber apparatus 
should be stored in a dark place. A class in physics consumes at best 
more of the teacher's time than one in most other branches. Everything 
about the laboratory should be arranged to facilitate the getting out and 
putting away of apparatus. Then the teacher should be expected and 
required to see that all tools and apparatus be locked up when not in use. 

A few tools for making and repairing apparatus are an essential part 
of a laboratory equipment. There should be at least a small carpenter's 
work-bench, and at least the following tools: Vise, fine-toothed saw, 
small plane, brace, drills, screw-drivers, pliers, files, small claw-hammer, 
tinner's snips, small soldering-iron, hack-saw. 

The following valuable advice for laboratory management is taken 
from Chute's Laboratory Manual: 

"There are in use two methods of conducting laboratory work, the 
sepo.rate system and the collective system. Under the former the students 
work on different problems, the apparatus going around in rotation. It 
"is difficult under this plan to have the students' work conform to a. 
strictly logical order, but on the other hand it requires little or no dupli- 
'cation of apparatus. The collective system is the ideal one. Under it all 
are engaged on the same kind of work at the same time. It has this ad- 
vantage over the separate system, a teacher can instruct all at once on 
any point demanding more than ordinary care and can give more atten- 
tion to the few who may be less apt in their work. A combination of the 
two is probably the best for most schools, in that it avoids the duplica- 
tion of expensive pieces of apparatus and permits it in the case of the less 
costly." 

Experience has taught us that the average teacher of physics is liable 
to err in requiring too many experiments of his pupils. The result of 
such an error is not only confusing, but it permits the pupil to form care- 
less habits in the use of apparatus; and, what is worse, leads him into 
the dangerous habit of being satisfied with inaccurate results. It would 
he far better for the teacher to select half the number of experiments, 
and see to it that each individual member of the class performs each ex- 
periment individually, and preserves a description of his work and its 
results in good readable form. 

In submitting the following list of thirty experiments we have en- 
deavored to suggest the most important problems which should be used 
in an elementary course in physics. Where facilities are ample and the 
time is longer than usual in the average school, it may be well to increase 
this number; unless such conditions exist, however, it would in all proba- 
bility be unwise to undertake more than is expected in this outline. Any 
student who, with proper direction, has performed the following thirty 
experiments in connection with the text-book work, and who has pre- 
served the history of each experiment in note-book form, will have ac- 
complished all that should be expected of the average high-school student 
In the period of one year, and credit will be given for same at the Uni- 
"w^ersity. 



44 High School 

Each experiment is suggested by number, and following is given the 
apparatus necessary to perform it. The teacher is expected to use his 
own judgment in substituting other experiments when laboratory equip- 
ment or other facilities would make such change advantageous to the 



students. 



LIST OF EXPERIMENTS. 

MECHANICS. 

I. Exercises in measurements. 

Meter stick or metric ruler. 
School square. 
Circular disc. 
II. Weight of unit volume, i. e., density. 

Any solid of regular geometric form. ■ 

Metric ruler. 

Balances (spring balance will do) . 

III. Law of elasticity. 

Wooden rod a half inch square and about forty inches long. 

Two blocks to support the ends. 

Set of weights. 

Coiled spring and support. 

Metric ruler. 

IV. Parallelogram of forces. 

Three spring balances. 

Paralleogram board or three quilting-frame clamps to at- 
tach balances to table. 
Some stout twine. 
Large sheet of paper. 
V. Principle of moments (the lever) . 
Meter stick. 
One lever holder. 
Set of weights. 
Some stout twine. 

VI. Inclined plane. 

Board six inches wide and forty inches long. 

Tripod support, clamp holder and short piece of rod (to 

support upper end of board) . 
Hall's carriage. 

Set of weights, or pieces of iron of different weights. 
Balances (spring balances will do). 

VII. Volume and pressure of a gas (Boyle's law). 

Any Boyle's law apparatus. 
VIII. Archimedes's principle. 

Any solid that will sink in water and whose volume can be 

measured, i. e., cylinder or rectangular block. 
Balances (spring balances will do). 
Vessel of water. 
IX. Specific gravity of a solid. 

Any solid (a small stone will do). 
Balances (spring balances will do). 
Vessel of water. 
X. Specific gravity of a liquid. 

Small bottle, eight ounces. 
Balances (spring balances will do). 
Liquid to be measured. 



Courses of Study. 45 



XI. Linear expansion of a solid. 

Linear expansion apparatus. 

Thermometer. 

Boiler (apparatus A). 

Bunsen burner (or gasoline torch). 

Funnel. 

Rubber tubing for connections. 

XII. Cubical expansion of air. 

Bunsen burner (or gasoline torch). 

Small glass tube twenty centimeters long, sealed at one end 
and a drop of mercury in the middle, so as to inclose a 
column of dry air about fifteen centimeters long. 

Boiler (apparatus A) . 

Jar of ice-water. 

Thermometer. 

Metric ruler. 

XIII. Specific heat. 

Vessel of boiling water. 

Lead shot (or closely wound coil of wire, or small nails). 

Boiler (apparatus A) and dipper. 

Thermometer. 

Calorimeters (after Hall and Bergen or Millikan and Gale). 

Bunsen burner (or gasoline torch). 

XIV. Heat of fusion of ice. 

Cracked ice (or snow). 
Calorimeter. 

Balances (better use beam balance) . 
Thermometer. 
XV. Heat of vaporization of water. 
Calorimeter. 
Beam balances. 
Boiler. 
Glass trap. 
Thermometer. 
Rubber connections. 

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY. 

XVI. Lines of force about a bar magnet. 

Six-inch bar magnet. 

Iron filings. 

Compass ten millimeters in diameter. 

Pepper-box or wide-mouthed bottle covered with cheese-cloth, 
to sift filings. 
XVII. Simple voltaic cell. 

Student's demonstration battery. 

Mercury. 

Galvanometer. 
XVIII. Polarization of battery cell. 

Student's demonstration battery. 

Porous cup for above. 

Solution of copper sulphate and solution of zinc sulphate. 

Galvanometer. 

Commutator. 

Leclanche battery cell, or dry cell. 
XIX. Magnetic effect of current. 

Battery cell. 

Copper wire. 

Compass. 

Commutator. 



46 High School 

XX. Electromotive force of batteries. 
Two similar battery cells. 
Galvanometer. 

High-resistance coil (about 1000 ohms). 
Commutator. 
XXI. Resistance by substitution. 

Daniell cell (made of student's demonstration battery) . 
Coil of unknown resistance. 
Commutator. 

Resistance-box (or some German silver wire, about No. 20. 
A foot in length of this wire may be used as a unit re- 
sistance). 
XXII. Resistance by the Wheatstone bridge. 
Wheatstone bridge. 
Unknown resistance. 

Resistance-box (or German silver wire). 
D'Arsonval galvanometer. 
Commutator. 
Battery cell (Daniell's). 

XXIII. Currents by induction. 

Bar magnet. 

Horseshoe magnet. 

Two circular coils, each containing 600 to 700 turns of 

No. 27 magnet wire. 
Iron rod to insert in coils (rod from tripod will do). 
D'Arsonval galvanometer. 
Battery of one or two cells. 
Commutator. 

SOUND. 

XXIV. Velocity of sound in air. 

Seconds pendulum. 
Hammer and any sonorous body. 
XXV. Wave-length of sound. 

Tuning-fork of unknown rate. 

Glass tube IJ inches in diameter and 30 to 50 inches long. 
One-holed rubber stopper to fit glass tube. 
Short piece glass tubing to insert in rubber stopper for at- 
tachment of rubber tubing. 
From three to four feet rubber tubing. 
Funnel. 
Water. 
XXVI. Vibration rate of tuning-fork. 

Vibrograph and tuning-fork to fit. 
String. 

LIGHT. 

XXVII. Images in plane mirror. 
Mirror li x 4 inches. 
Rectangular block to support mirror. 
String or rubber band. 
Pins. 
Ruler. 
XXVIII. Index of refraction of glass. 

Rectangular piece of plate-glass with opposite edges ground.. 
Pins. 
Ruler. 
XXIX. Focal length of lens. 
Lens. 
Ruler. 

Lens holder. 
Card holder. 
White cardboard. 



Courses of Study. 



4T 



XXX. Size of object and image. 

Wire gauze (or piece of fly-screen). 

Lens. 

Meter stick. 

Ruler. 

Candle or lamp. 

Lens holder. 

Card holder. 

LIST OF APPARATUS. 

The following list of apparatus is suggested as one best suited to the- 
small or medium-sized high schools. It contains all pieces necessary to 
perform the thirty experiments listed above, and will not be so expensive 
that the smaller schools cannot afford to purchase. The second column 
designates the number of pieces that should be purchased, based upon 
the size of the class. If only one piece of each is bought the expense 
will be much less, but more time will be needed for laboratory work, 
since only three or four pupils can use one set of apparatus at the same 
time. A class of twelve should require at least three sets of apparatus. 
It is understood of course that this does not apply to the larger and more 
expensive pieces. 



Apparatus. 


Pieces needed. 


Cat. No., 

C. H. Stoelt- 

ing & Co., 

Chicago. 


Cat. No., 
Central 
Scientific 
Company, 
Chicago. 


Cat. No., 

Wm. 

Gaertner 

&Co., 

Chicago. 




One for 2.. . . 


74 


321 


H 101 


Brass disc 


One for 6 


H 102^ 


School square 


One for 2 


137 
964 
551 


521 








H 701 


Wooden rod 


One for 2 


651a 






One for 6 


H 1202 










H 203 


Metric ruler, 30 cm. long 


One each 


82 
311 


325 
3867 
3816 






One for 2 


H 401 




One for 12 


H 202- 




One for 6 




H 402 






691 
685 

1161 


730 
771 

1051 


H 1501 


Hall's can'iage 


One for 6 


H 1602 




One for 6 


5 *H 1001 
1 tH 100\a. 


Mercury 


2 lbs 


Jar, any good vessel holding a qt . . . . 


One for 4 








Paraffin 


2 lbs 








Bottles, 2-oz., any kind 


One for 4 










One for 6 


1445 
1329 

5205 


1561 
1501 

4625 


H 1402 




One for 6 


H 1401 


Bunsen burner, gasoline torch, or 
large alcohol lamp 


One for 2 to 4 

20 feet or more 




Rubber tubing ( estimated amount ) , 




Thermometer 


One for 2 


1255 
1335 
1333 

1359 

1802 
1881 
1891 


1525 
1589 


H 1102^ 




One for 2 


H 1801 




One for 12 




Volume coeff . of air-tube 




j * H 1302- 

1 tH 1302(1 

H 2502- 


Bar magnet 




1705 
1761 
1765 




One for 4 


H 2902- 


Compass, good , 




H 2601 


Galvanometer frame 




H 2801 


Iron filings 


2 lbs 








Demonstration cell 




2300 

2301 
j 2306 1 
1 2309 f 


2110 
2110a 

2nQd-z 


H 2802 




One for 4. 


H 2803 


Carbon, lead, iron, aluminum, elec- 1 

trodes f 

Copper sulfate 


One for 4 


H 3102 


5 lbs 




Zinc sulfate 


3 lbs 










Two for class 

Two for class 

Two for class 

Two for class 

One for class 


2688 
2690 
2692 
2703 
3000 
3081 


2335 
2339 
2343 
2365 
2692 
2756 




Telegraph sounder 








Battery-cell telephone 




Electric call-bell 




Push-button 






Pair for 6 


H3601 



48 



High School 



Apparatus. 



Pieces needed. 



Cat. No.. 

C. H. Stoelt- 

mg & Co., 

Chicago. 



Cat. No. 
Central 
Scientific 
Company, 
Chicago. 



Cat. No., 

Wm. 
Gaertner 

&Co., 
Chicago. 



Battery motor 

Horseshoe magnet 

Hydrometer for light liquids. 

Vibrograph 

Tuning-fork for vibrograph . 

Tuning-fork, 256 

Glass tube. iy2 x 40 



Rubber stoppers to fit tube, one-hole, 

Sulfuric acid 

Commutator 

Leclanche cells 

Magnet wire DCC 

Magnet wire, 1 lb. No. 24. ": 

Ammonium chlorid 

Thousand-ohm coil 

Resistance-box 

Unknown resistance-coil German sil- 
ver wire, D C C No. 28 

Wheatstone bridge 

Galvanometer, D'Arsonval 

Small glass tubing, A 

Plane mirror 

Plate-glass rectangle 

Double-convex lens, 6-inch focus 

Convex lens with mounting and wire 
screen 

Screen holders 

Lens support 

Pr. blocks to support meter stick 

Condenser clamp 

( Iron tripod base, 6 lbs 

X Iron rods to fit, 13 mm. x 40 cm 

( Right-angle piece 

Or this set of supports, tripod rod, 
clamp, burette holder 



Two for class. 

One for 6 

One for class.. 
One for class. . 
One for class. . 

One for 4 

One for 4 

One for 4 

1 lb 

One for 6 

One for 4 



2717 
2715 



2246 
2245 



lib 

One for 4 , 
One for 6 . 



1745 

1699 

1693 

5632 
j 5800 
I No. 9 
Cat. A 

2979 

2389 

6958 
Specify size. 



3035 

3037 

3012 

4982 

5213 I 
No. 9 I 
Cat. M 

2601 

2115 

6107 
Specify size. 



2442 



About 1 lb . . . 
One for class. 
One for class. 

2 lbs 

One for 2 ... . 
One for 2 ... . 
One for 2 



2917 
2845 
5638 
3429 
3621 
3399 



2473 
2414 
4981 
3201 
3301 
3281 



One for 2 , 
One for 2 , 
One for 2 . 
One for 2 , 
One for 4 . 
One for 4 , 
One for 4 , 
One for 4 , 



3463 
3460 
3459 
5399 
4302 
4341 
4357 



3288 

3285 

3290 

4717 

2 

21 

38 



Tripod for Bunsen burners 5-in. 
Ring clamp, 4-in 



One for 4 

One for school. . . 
One for 4 



6010 
5 or 6 

5899 



5443 

5 or 6 

5201 



* Filled. 
t Not filled. 



REFERENCE BOOKS. 



H3703 

H2503 

H803 

H3901 



H4001 



H501 

Cat. H 
H2901 



H3101 



H3201 
H3001 



H4601 



S602 

S204 

SlOOl 

H1002 



-BOOKS OF ABOUT THE SAME GRADE AS THE HIGH-SCHOOL WORK. 

A First Course in Physics, Millikan & Gale; Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

A Laboratory Course in Physics, Millikan & Gale; Ginn & Co., Chicago. 

Laboratory Manual of Physics, Cheston, Dean & Timmerman; Ameri- 
can Book Company, New York. 

Physical Laboratory Manual, Coleman; American Book Company, 
Chicago. 

Laboratory Manual of Physics, Crew & Tatnall; The Macmillan 
Company, Chicago and New York. 

Manual of Experiments in Physics, J. S. Ames & J. A. Bliss; Harper 
Bros., New York. This is a somewhat more advanced book, but very 
good to have in the library. 

ADVANCED BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 



Watson; Longmans, Green & 



A Text Book of Physics, Watson, and- 
Elementary Practical Physics (lab.), 
Co., New York and Chicago. 

GENERAL READING AND OF HELP TO THE INSTRUCTOR. 

On Laboratory Arts, Richard Threlfall; The Macmillan Company. 
(Tells how to do things.) 

The Art of Projecting, A. E. Dolbear; Lee & Sheperd, Boston. 
On Sound, Tyndall; Harper Bros. (Popular lectures; classics.) 
Soap Bubbles, C. V. Boys. (Romance of Science series.) (Get from 



Courses of Study. 49 

McClurg & Co., Chicago.) E. & J. J. Young & Co., New York. Popular 
lectures on soap films, showing many interesting and instructive experi- 
ments. 

Spinning Tops, Perry. (Romance of Science series.) (Get from Mc- 
Clurg & Co., Chicago.) A most interesting series of lectures on the 
mechanics of spinning bodies. Popular style. 

Pioneers of Science, Oliver Lodge; The Macmillan Company. Very 
interesting and inspiring. Popular style. 

Tables of Constants, Smithsonian Physical Tables, Smithsonian In- 
stitution, Washington, D. C. 

History of Physics, Cajori; the Macmillan Company. 

CHEMISTRY. One unit. 

The work in chemistry consists of two parts, the study of the text and 
the laboratory work. The year's work should be about equally divided 
between these two parts. Both the text-book matter and the laboratory 
work should be included in the recitation. This period should be enlivened 
by experiments and illustrations by the teacher, especially performing 
experiments illustrating laws which are too difficult for the pupils in 
their laboratory work. 

The work outlined can be most satisfactorily accomplished by having 
two recitations of forty-five minutes each, two laboratory periods of 
ninety minutes each, and a forty-five minute period for review, exam- 
ination or lecture per week. 

It is better to complete a portion of the work thoroughly rather than 
cover the whole subject and not master it. Pupils who have done labora- 
tory work in the proper way and can show their original notes, who have 
thoroughly completed a good text as far as the metals, and who can write 
reactions and solve problems involving this part of the text will be al- 
lowed an entrance unit at the University. This includes about the first 
sixty experiments and the part of the text which they supplement. 

The following outline, based on the state text, is intended to present 
in clear form the subject-matter for a year's work. It will be found 
helpful, particularly to the inexperienced teacher. It is intended only as 
a guide, not in any sense to take the place of the text. The resourceful 
Instructor will modify and adapt it to the conditions under which the 
course must be given. 

TEXTS. 

I. Introduction. 

1. The metric system. 

(1) The unit of length, of capacity, of weight; their rela- 
tions, and the standard of each. 

2. Thermometers. 

(1) Fahrenheit and Centigrade, relation. 

3. Relation of chemistry and physics. 

(1) Physical change. 

(2) Chemical change. 

(3) Mechanical mixture. 

(4) Chemical compound. 

(5) Things that cause chemical action. 

4. The elements. 

(1) Distinguish from compounds. 

(2) Relative importance of twenty. 

(3) Symbols. 

(4) Reagents and reactions. 

5. Importance of the study of chemistry. 

(1) To make exact thinkers. 

(2) To assist in the study of other subjects. 

(3) To develop the power to do things. 

(4) The commercial side. 

-4 



50 



High School 



I. Introduction — continued. 

6. The laboratory apparatus for the individual pupil. 

(1) Names of articles, 

(2) Uses. 

(3) Care. 

7. The laboratory in general. 

(1) Care of apparatus for class use. 

(2) Cleanliness of tables, floor, sinks, hoods, etc. 

(3) Methods of distributing chemicals. 

(4) How to handle chemicals. 

OUTLINE. 

In studying the elements and their compounds a general outline like 
the following will be helpful: 
I. Occurrence. 

Free in nature; compounds found in nature. 

II. Physical properties. 

Form; color; diffusibility ; density; odor; solubility; weight 
of one liter; melting-point; boiling-point; conditions under 
which it may be changed to other forms. 
III. Chemical properties. 

Active or inactive; other forms found in the laboratory; com- 
bustibility; ability to support combustion; action on water.. 
IV. Methods of making in the laboratory. 

The reactions; how collected; how purified. 
V. Test by which it is recognized. 
VI. Problems. 
VII. Commercial uses. 

LECTURE WORK. 

The apparatus for illustration and lecture work may be made as ex- 
pensive as any school board wishes to afford; but a teacher may do good 
work with a small amount, if it is judiciously selected. Get the small 
and necessary apparatus first and add to it year by year. 

The following list is as complete as any high school needs: 

APPARATUS FOR LECTURE-TABLE, STOREROOM AND SPECIAL WORK. 



Article. 



Kind. 



Size. 



Number. Cost. 



A large table t . 
Apparatus* 



Apparatus 

Balance* 

Bath* 

Beakers 

Bottles 

Bottles* 

Bottles* 

Casseroles* 

Clamps and collars. 

Condensers 

Corkscrew 

Crucibles* 

Cylinders 

Cylinders 

Desiccator* 

Dishes* 

Dishes* '. . 



Flasks . 
Flasks . 
Flasks. 
Flasks* 
Flasks . 



Funnels. 



Electrolytic, with re- 
movable electrodes. 

Kipp's 

Chemical 

Water 

Griffin 

Reagent 

Salt mouth, g. s 

Salt mouth, g. s 

R. B. porcelain 

4-finger 

Glass 

Ordinary 

Porcelain 

Gas 

Graduated 

Glass 

Crystallizing 

Evaporating, porce- 
lain 

Distilling 

Erlenmeyer 

German 

Graduated 

Round bottom, short 
neck 

Glass 



2-quart . 



6-inch 

1-8 

250 cc 

500 cc 

1000 cc 

Number 4 

Large 

6 cm 

Large 

Number 

Large 

250 and 500 cc. 

6-inch 

1-10 



Number 10 

500 cc 

500 cc 

1000 cc 

100, 250, 500, 1000 cc. . . 



1 

2 

1 

1 

2 nests. . 
24 



48 

2 

2 of each , 

2 

1 

12 

6 

2 

1 

1 nest 



2000 cc 4. 

8- inch and 6-inch 2. 



$10 00 
12 00 

100 00 
1 75 
4 00> 
4 80 

8 00 

9 00 

1 20 

2 00 
2 50 

15 
1 20 

1 80 

2 50 
1 50 
1 50 

3 00 
1 30 

1 50 

2 00 

3 00 

1 20 

7& 



Courses of Study. 



51 



Article. 



Funnels* 

Gas-holder* . . , 
Hydrometers* 



Mortar and pestle. . . 

Oven* 

Pinch-cocks 

Pneumatic troughs . 

Retort 

Rule 

Stands 

Stands 

Stands 

Tongs* 

Triangles* 

Tube* 

Tubes 

Tubes , 

Tubes 

Wash-bottle 

Watch-glasses* 

Water 



Weights* 



Kind. 



Separatory 

Zinc 

Alcohol, light and 
heavy liquids . . . . 

Wedgewood , 

Drying 

Hoffman's 

Glass 

Copper 

Metric , 

Burette 

Ring 

Filter 

Crucible 

Porcelain 

Hoffman's 

Test 

Test on foot 

U 

Wicker neck 

Thin 

Apparatus for dis- 
tilling 

Analytical 



Size. 



150 cc... . 
5-gallon . 



6-inch 

8x12 incheb 

Medium 

6x8x12 

1 pint 

1 meter long 

2 clamps 

Large 

For four funnels. 



Medium. 
100 cc. . . 
8-inch. . . 
8-inch. . . 
6-inch.. . 
1 liter. . . 
12 cm.. . . 



1/2 gallon per hour . 
1 mg.— 50gms 



Number. 


Cost. 


2 


1 50 


1 


11 00 


3 


3 00 


2 


2 00 


1 


10 00 


2 


80 


2 


5 00 


1, 

1 


1 50 
50 


2 


3 00 


2 


1 50 


2 


2 00 


1 pair 

6 


50 
60 


1 


3 00 


50 


1 50 


12 


1 50 


12 


1 50 


2 


1 25 


12 


1 00 


1 

1 set 


30 00 
10 00 



*In small schools where the means are limited apparatus marked with an asterisk may be 
omitted. 

t Should be in front part of classroom, with gas connections, sink and water. 



LIST OF LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS TO BE PERFORMED BY EACH PUPIL. 

This outline is not intended to be a laboratory manual for the pupil; 
it is only suggestive, and for the teacher only. 

In arranging these experiments three ideas have been constantly in 
mind; the intellectual development and training of the pupil; the prac- 
tical utility of chemistry; and the preparation of the pupil to continue 
the work in this subject at higher institutions of learning. 
I. To show a physical and a chemical change. 

1. Heat a platinum wire. 

2. Heat a piece of magnesium wire. 

II. To illustrate some causes of chemical change. 

1. Heat. 

2. Light. 

3. Friction. 

4. Solution. 

5. Electricity. 

III. To show the difference between a mechanical mixture and a 

chemical compound. 

1. Iron filings and sulfur. 

2. Separate by carbon bisulfid. 

3. Separate by hydrochloric acid. 

4. Unite them chemically. 

IV. To make hydrogen by the action of a metal on water. 

1. Sodium. 

2. Potassium. 

3. Magnesium (hot water). 

V. To make hydrogen by the action of an acid on a metal and 
show its properties. 

1. To show its lightness. 

2. Diffusibility, 

3. Burn it. 

4. Product of combustion. 

5. The salt formed by the action of the acid on the metal. 
VI. To illustrate the law of constant proportions. 

1. A fixed weight of magnesium on acid. 

2. Problems. 



52 



High School 



VII. Methods of making oxygen. 

1. From mercuric oxid. 

2. From potassium chlorate. 

3. From manganese dioxid. 

VIII. To make oxygen and to study its properties. 

1. Burn sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, sodium, and iron in it. 

2. Study the products of their combustion. 
IX. Make a synthesis of water. 

1. By hydrogen over hot copper oxid. 
X. Water contained in vegetable and animal substances. 

1. Wood, meat, potato, etc. 
XI. Water of crystallization. 

1. Zinc sulfate, gypsum, copper sulfate. 
XII. Precipitate calcium carbonate from water by boiling. 

1. Impurities in natural waters. 

XIII. Purify water by — 

1. Filtration. 

2. Settling. 

3. Distillation. 

4. Boiling. 

XIV. Efflorescence. 

1. Sodium carbonate. 

2. Zinc sulfate. 

3. Sodium sulfate. 

XV. Deliquescence. 

1. Calcium chlorid. 

2. Sodium hydroxid. 
XVI. Water as a solvent of — 

1. Sodium chlorid. 

2. Alum. 

3. Manganese dioxid. 

4. Barium sulfate. 

5. Glycerin. 

6. Chloroform. 

7. Ammonia. 

XVII. Prepare and study the properties of chlorin. 

1. Solubility. 

2. Action on antimony. 

3. On phosphorus. 

4. On copper. 

5. On turpentine. 

6. Uses as a bleaching agent. 
XVIII. Chlorin made from bleaching-powder. 

1. Used as ink eradicator. 
XIX. Make potassium chlorate and potassium chlorid. 

1. Separate them. 

2. Test each product. 

XX. Make and study the properties of hydrochloric acid. 

1. Solubility. 

2. Combustibility. 

3. Action on litmus paper. 

4. Action of the gas on ammonia. 

5. Test a solution of the gas. 

6. Add some to zinc. 

7. Add some to manganese dioxid. 

8. Taste a very dilute solution. 

9. Crystallize the salt formed. 



Courses of Study. 53 

XXI. Neutralize a solution of — 

1. Hydrochloric acid. 

2. Sulfuric acid. 

3. Nitric acid, with solution of — 

1. Sodium hydroxid. 

2. Calcium hydroxid. 

3. Ammonium hydroxid. 

4. Barium hydroxid. 

4. Crystallize the salts formed. 

XXII. Make and study the properties of nitrogen. 

1. Sodium nitrite and ammonium chlorid heated. 

XXIII. Make nitrogen from the air. 

1. By phosphorus. 

XXIV. Determine the amount of oygen in the air. 

1. By volume. 

2. By weight. 

XXV. Show the presence of moisture in the air. 

1. Calcium chlorid. 

2. Sodium hydroxid. 
XXVI. Test the air for carbon dioxid. 

1. With lime-water or baryta-water. 
XXVII. Make ammonia and study its properties. 

1. With glue and calcium hydroxid. 

2. Ammonium chlorid and sodium hydroxid solution. 

3. Ammonium nitrate and potassium hydroxid. 

4. Ammonium chlorid and lime. 

5. Test its solubility. 

6. Temperature change on solution. 

7. Density compared with air. 

8. Combustibility. 

9. Action on hydrochloric acid gas, etc. 
XXVIII. Preparation and properties of nitric acid. 

1. Use of sodium nitrate and sulfuric acid. 

2. Action of the acid on metals, magnesium, copper, tin, 

etc. 
XXIX. Preparation and properties of a nitrite. 

1. Sodium nitrate and lead. 

2. Nitrous acid. 

3. A reducing agent. 

4. Distinguish a nitrate from a nitrite. 
XXX. Nitrogen tetroxid and nitrogen dioxid. 

1. Heat lead nitrate. 

2. Combustibility. 

3. Change the one to the other. 
XXXI. Nitric oxid and its properties. 

1. Copper and dilute nitric acid. 

2. Action on air. 

3. Solubility and combustibility. 

4. Burn red phosphorus in it. 

5. Crystallize the copper nitrate. 
XXXII. Nitrous oxid and its properties. 

1. Heat ammonium nitrate. 

2. Water and nitrous oxid is formed. 

3. Solubility, odor, etc. 

4. Supports combustion. 
XXXIII. Allotropic forms of sulfur. 

1. Properties of roll sulfur. 

2. Forms. 

(1) Rhombic. (2) Plastic. (3) Monoclinic. 



54 



High School 



XXXIV. Preparation and properties of hydrogen sulfid. 

1. Combustibility and ability to support combustion. 

2. Action on litmus, silver, etc. 

3. Action on salts of metals in acid solution. 

(1) Copper, (2) lead, (3) arsenic, (4) antimony, 
(5) mercury, (6) cadmium. 

4. Action on salts of metals in alkaline solution. 

(1) Sodium, (2) calcium, (3) zinc, (4) iron(ous), 
(5) iron(ic), (6) manganese. 
XXXV. Sulfur dioxid and its properties. 

1. Burn sulfur. 

2. Anhydrid of sulfurous acid. 

3. Bleaching agent. 

4. Also made by the action of sulfuric acid on copper. 

XXXVI. To make sulfates. 

1. Any soluble sulfate, barium chlorid, etc. 

2. Test for sulfate. 

XXXVII. Properties and forms of carbon. 

1. Diamond. 

2. Graphite. 

3. Amorphous. 

(1) Charcoal, (2) lampblack, etc. 
XXXVIII. Carbon as an absorbent. 

1. Litmus solution and animal charcoal, etc. 

2. Cold charcoal and gases. 
XXXIX. Carbon a reducing agent. 

1. Copper oxid and carbon. 

2. Arsenic trioxid and animal charcoal, 
XL. The action of acids on carbonates. 

1. A salt and carbon dioxid formed. 
XLI. Carbon dioxid in the breath. 
1. Lime-water. 
XLII. Preparation and properties of carbon dioxid. 

1. Effect on water. 

2. Combustibility. 

3. Density. 

4. Pass through lime-water. 

5. Make the acid carbonate. 
XLIII. Preparation of the carbonate. 

1. From sodium hydrate. 
XLIV. Carbon monoxid. 

1. From oxalic acid. 

2. Properties. 

XLV. Preparation and properties of methane. 

1. Sodium acetate and soda lime. 

2. Physical properties. 

3. Chemical properties. 

4. Natural gas. 

XLVI. To determine molecular masses. 

1. Alcohol. 

(1) By freezing-point. 

(2) By boiling-point. 

2. Gases.. 

(1) By comparison of weights. 

XL VII. The structure of a flame. 

1. Bunsen's flame. 

2. Candle flame. 

3. Hydrogen flame. 



Courses of Study. 55 

XLVIII. Prepare and study the properties of bromin. 

1. Potassium bromid, manganese dioxid and sulfuric acid. 

2. Density of the liquid. 

3. Solubility. 

4. Test for bromin. 

5. Replaced by chlorin. 

6. Action on sodium hydroxid. 
XLIX. lodin and hydriodic acid. 

1. Potassium iodid, manganese dioxid and sulfuric acid. 

2. Test for free iodin. 

3. Replaced by bromin and chlorin. 

4. Sublime it. 

5. Solubility in water, in alcohol. 

6. Iodin solution and hydrogen sulfid. 
L. Hydrofluoric acid. 

1. Etch glass. 
LI. The silver halides. 

1. Silver nitrate and sodium chlorid. 

2. Potassium bromid. 

3. Potassium iodid. 

4. Solubility of each precipitate in ammonium hydrate. 
LII. Hydrogen peroxid. 

1. Sodium peroxid and water made acid by sulfuric acid. 

2. Oxidizing agent. 

3. Reducing agent. 

4. Test for. 

5. Action on a solution of potassium permanganate. 
LIII. Phosphorus and phosporic acid. 

1. Solubility of red and of yellow phosphorus in carbon 

bisulfid. 

2. Change the red to yellow by heating in a closed tube. 

3. Add silver nitrate, calcium chlorid, magnesium sulfate 

and ammonia water to a solution of phosphoric acid. 
LIV. Arsenic and its compounds. 

1. Reduce arsenic trioxid. 

2. Dissolve in hydrochloric acid and add hydrogen sulfid. 

3. Add sodium hydrate to arsenic trioxid. 

4. Oxidize some arsenic. 
LV. Antimony and its compounds. 

1. Action of acid on the metal. 

2. Pass hydrogen sulfid into the solution made by aqua 

regia. 

3. Dissolve some tartar emetic and pass hydrogen sulfid 

into the solution. 

4. Reduce some antimony trioxid. 

5. Oxidize some antimony. 
LVI. Bismuth and its compounds. 

1. Properties of the metal. 

2. Dissolve some bismuth nitrate; add hydrochloric acid 

to prevent hydrolysis. 

3. Add much water to some of this solution. 

4. Add hydrogen sulfid to the remainder. 
LVII. Borax and boric acid. 

1. Make borax beads on the end of a platinum wire. 

2. Test for the following with beads: Chromium, man- 

ganese, cobalt, nickel. 

3. Make boric acid by adding hydrochloric acid to a hot 

solution of borax. 

4. Change it back to borax with sodium carbonate. 



56 



High School 



LVIII. Evidence of ionization. 

1. Solution of silver nitrate on a solution of potassium 

chlorate. 

2. Solution of silver nitrate and potassium chlorid. 

3. Ammonium hydrate on ferric chlorid. 

4. Ammonium hydrate on a solution of potassium ferro- 

cyanid. 

5. Add water to a dry mixture of soda and cream of 

tartar. 
LIX. Sodium and its compounds. 

1. Properties of sodium. 

2. Heat sodium bicarbonate. 

3. Crystals of sodium salts. 

4. Add a solution of sodium carbonate to solutions of 

calcium chlorid. 

5. Test for sodium. 

6. Write formulas and names of thirty sodium salts. 

7. Sodium salts react alkaline in solution. 

8. Solubility of sodium salts. 
LX. Potassium and its compounds. 

1. Study the physical and the chemical properties of po- 

tassium. 

2. Make potassium nitrate from sodium nitrate. 

3. Make gunpowder, explode, and study the residue, 

4. Heat cream of tartar and study the residue. 

5. Test for potassium. 

6. Write and name twenty-five potassium salts. 

7. Solubility of potassium salts, exceptions. 
LXI. Distinction between the salts of the alkali metals. 

1. Sodium amalgam and ammonium chlorid. 

2. Potassium salts and tartaric acid. 

3. Ammonium salts and alkali. 

4. Sodium cobalt nitrite and potassium and ammonium 

salts. 
LXII. Calcium salts. 

1. Burn a piece of marble. 

2. Add acid to old mortar. 

3. Gypsum and water of crystallization. 

4. Plaster of Paris and water. 

5. Soluble calcium salt in solution, add solutions of am- 

monium carbonate, oxalate, etc. 
LXIII. Strontium and barium salts. 

1. Treat a solution of strontium chlorid with a solution 

of ammonium chlorid. 

2. Treat a like solution of sulfuric acid. 

3. Try the flame test. 

4. Name some soluble strontium salts; some that are in- 

soluble. 

5. Treat the corresponding barium salts in the same way. 
LXIV. Magnesium and its salts. 

1. Study its properties, both physical and chemical. 

2. To a soluble magnesium salt add a solution of sodium 

carbonate. 

3. To the same add ammonium hydroxid and disodium 

hydrogen phosphate. 

4. Action of acid on magnesia. 



Courses of Study. 



57 



salts. 



and sulfuric acid on 



LXV. Zinc and its compounds. .■ ^f ,,i„n 

1. Physical and chemical properties of zmc. 

2. Heat a piece on charcoal. 

3. Action of acids on zinc. , , ^ 
4 Action of strong sodium hydrate on zmc. 
5". Sodium hydrate on a solution of a zinc salt 

6. Zinc solution of hydrogen sulfid. 

7. Solubility of the different zmc salts. 

LXVI. Cadmium salts. 

1. Color of the sulfid. 

2. Solubility of the sulfid, etc. 

LXVII. Mercury and its salts. 

1. Physical and chemical properties. 

2. Action on dilute nitric acid. 

3. Action on concentrated nitric acid. ^ 
4 Distinguish between the "ic and ous 

. 5. Mercury precipitated by other metals. 
6. A soluble salt and hydrogen sulfid. 
LXVIII. Copper and its compounds. 

1. Properties of the metal. 

2. Action of hydrochloric, nitric 

3. SolutSrf of copper sulfate on hydrogen sulfid. 

4. Fehling's solution and grape-sugar. 

5. Replaced by other metals. 

LXIX. Silver and its salts. 

1. Properties of the metal. 

2. Action of nitric acid on the metal. 

3. Sunlight on the halogen salts. 

4. Solution and hydrogen sulfid. 

5. Solution and a cyanide solution. 
LXX. Aluminum and its compounds. 

1. Study the properties of the metal. 

2. Action of acids on the metal. 

3. The action of sodium hydroxid. 

4. Ammonium hydrate on a solution of a salt. 

5. Make alum. , , . 1. j j. 

6. Action of sodium carbonate on the aluminum hydrate. 

7. Use of its salts as a mordant. 

LXXI. Iron and its salts. 

1. Properties of the metal. 

2. Make ferrous chlorid. 

3. Tests for the ferrous salts. . 

4 Make ferric chlorid and tests for ferric salts. 

5. Ferrous sulfate and hydrogen sulfid, alkaline solution. 

6. The same, acid solution. „ ^ , , iaj 

7. Reduction of the "ic" to the "ous" by hydrogen sulfid. 

LXXII. Nickel and cobalt and their salts. 

1. Properties of the metals. 

2. Make borax beads with their salts. 

3 Hydrogen sulfid in both acid and alkaline solution. 

4. Color of the different salts and their solutions. 
LXXIII. Manganese compounds. 

1. To make the sulfid. 

2. The hydroxid. 

3. The permanganate. 

4. Reduction by grape-sugar. 

5. Manganese dioxid. 



58 



High School 



LXXIV. Chromium compounds. 

1. Color of the salts, etc. 

2. Make the chromate from the dichromate. 

3. Make the dichromate from the chromate. 

4. Chromate solution and barium chlorid. 

5. Chromic chlorid and sodium hydroxid. 

6. Distinguish a chromic salt from a chromate. 

7. Change one to the other, and reverse. 

LXXV. Lead and its salts. 

1. Properties of lead. 

2. Reduce the oxid. 

3. From a solution of a lead salt precipitate the lead salts 

by hydrochloric acid, potassium chromate, sulfuric 
acid, sodium hydroxid, etc. 

4. Replace lead in its salts by zinc. 
LXXVI. Tin and its compounds. 

1. Properties of the metal. 

2. Action of hydrochloric acid on the metal. 

3. Mercurous chlorid and stannous chlorid. 

4. Precipitate the "ic" and "ous" sulfids. 

5. Make "ic" and "ous" hydroxid. 

6. Tin replaced in its salts by zinc. 

7. Make the oxid. 
To determine the amount of oxygen obtainable from a 

weighed amount of mercuric oxid. 

1. Hard glass tubing and eudiometer. 

2. Apply the gas laws. 
To determine the amount of crystal water in salts. 

1. Copper sulfate. 

2. Potassium alum. 
The law of definite proportions. 

1. Standard solution of hydrochloric acid and potassium 
hydroxid. 
The law of multiple proportions. 

1. Potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate. 

APPARATUS. 

Each pupil should have and be responsible for the following list of 
apparatus, or as much of it as it is possible to furnish him : 



LXXVIL 

LXXVIIL 

LXXIX. 

LXXX. 



Article. 


Kind. 


Size. 


Number or 
amount. 


Cost. 


Bath 


Sand 


10x2 cm 


1 


15 cts. 


Beakers 


Plain 


1-6 


6 


50 


Blowpipe 


Brass 




1 


10 


Bottles 




120 cc. with g. s 


5 


75 


Burner 




1 


20 


Candle holder 


Wire handle 




1 . . 


15 


Collar and clamp 


Two-finger 


Small 


1 


50 


Corks 


Cork 




20 


05 


Covers 




10x10 cm 


2 


10 


Cylinders 


Gas 


6x20 cm 


2 


60 


Cylinder 




50 cc 


1 


30 


Dish 




10x20 cm 


1 . . 


30 


Dish 




No. 4. 


1 


30 


Files 


1 round and 1 triangular 


10 cm 


2 


10 


Flasks 


500.250. 100 cc 

150 cc 

300 cc 


3 


37 


Flask 




1 


15 


Flasks 


Woulff's 2-neck 


2 


30 


Forceps 


Steel 


10 cm. 


Ipair 

2 


10 


Funnels 


Glass 


8 cm. and 4 cm 

10x10 cm 


18 


Gauze 




1 


05 


Magnet 




Small. 


1 


05 


Matches 


Safety 




2 boxes..-. . 
1 


02 


Mortar and pestle 


Porcelain 


No. 4 


30 



Courses of Study. 



59 



Article. 



Taper 

Taper 

Paper 

Pneumatic trough., 

Hetort 

Ring stand 

Rings 

Spatula 

Spoon 

Stoppers 



Kind. 



Test-tube holder. 
Test-tube rack . . . 

Towel... 

Tripod 

Tube 

Tubes 

Tubes 

Tube 

Tubing 

Tubing. 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Tubing 

Watch-glass 

"Wire 

"Wire 



Drying 

Cut filter 

Litmus 

Tin 

Hard glass 

Iron 

Iron 

Horn 

Deflagrating 

1 one-holed and 

1 two-holed rubber. 

Wire 

Wooden 

Linen 

Iron 

Calcium chlorid 

Specimen 

Test 

Thistle 

Hard glass 

Hard glass 

Soft glass 

Maroon rubber 

For Bunsen burner. . 

Light 

Copper 

Platinum 



Size. 



Large 

10 cm 

Large 

20x30x10 cm 

250 cc 

Large 

1 large; 1 small. 
10 cm 



Number or 
amount. 



No. 5 and No. 6 . . . 

10 cm. long 

Small 

1 yard 

Medium size 

10 cm 

10x2 cm 

12x1.5 cm 

20 cm. long 

6 mm 

15 mm 

6 mm 

4 mm 

6 mm 

5 cm. in diameter. 

Small 

Small 



4 sheets.. 

50 

1 sheet . . . 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 



Cost. 



2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

12 

12 

1 

30 gms.. 

20 gms. 

200 gms. 

100 cm . . 

60 cm . . 

2 

100 cm . . 

5 cm . . 



04 cts. 

07 

05 

25 

30 

50 

30 

10 

15 

15 
10 
15 
10 
30 
10 
24 
24 
10 
05 
03 
15 
15 
20 
10 
01 
10 



If all the experiments are to be performed, the following list of class 
apparatus is necessary: 

I. — For the use of the class. 



Abticle. 



Balance 

Barometer 

Bellows 

Blast lamp 

Bottles 

•Cork-borers 

Cork-press 

Hood 

■Jars 

Jars 

Mortar and pestle. 

-Table* 

'Thermometer 



Kind. 



In a case 

Metric 

Foot 

Bunsen's 

Glass-stoppered . 

Hard brass 

Rotary 

With good draft . 

Crockery 

Crockery 

Iron 



Centigrade, for room. 



Size. 



8-inch beam 



Medium. 



500 cc 

1-5 

Ordinary. . . 
6 feet wide. 
2 gallons . . . 

1 quart 

1 quart 



12-inch. 



Number. 



1 

1 
1 
1 

24 
1 set. 

1 

1 

2 
12 

1 



Cost. 



$10 00 

10 00 

6 00 

3 50 

4 00 
60 
60 

(?) 

40 
60 
75 

125 00 
1 00 



* Should have eight gas connections, four water taps, two sinks, sixteen drawers, 
;and eight cases below. , , j.., x j „ 

The above in clean, dry, well lighted, heated and ventilated room. 

II._To be checked out to the pupils and returned as soon as the experi- 
ment is performed. 



Article. 


Kind. 


Size. 


Number. 


Cost. 






50 cc 


4 
4 
4 
4 
1 
4 
Iset. 


$5 00 






4x2x% inches 

100 cc 


40 




Without platinum wire 

Wire 


6 00 




4x4 inches 


40 


Magnifying glass 


•14 in. in diameter. . . 
Medium 


1 50 




48 


Weights- 


Metric 


1 mg. to 50 gms 


2 50 



Chemicals should be bought in quantity from a regular wholesale 
liouse. The cost per pupil for the course should not exceed seventy-five 
;cents- 



60 



High School 



CHEMICALS NECESSARY TO PERFORM ALL THE EXPERIMENTS GIVEN IN THE! 

OUTLINE. 



1. 


Agr foil. 


48. 


H2C4H4O6 


95. 


Na^HPOi 


2. 


AgNOs 


49. 


H2C2O4 


96. 


NaNOa 


3. 


Al wire and filings. 


50. 


HC3H3O2 


97. 


NaN03 


4. 


A1,(S0J3 


51. 


HNO3 


98. 


NaoOs 


5. 


As 


52. 


H,0 


99. 


NaOH 


6. 


AsCU 


53. 


H2O2 


100. 


Na2S03 


7. 


AS2O3 


54. 


H3PO4 


101. 


NasSOi 


8. 


BaClo 


55. 


H0SO4 


102. 


Na2S203 


9. 


BaCNOa)^ 


56. 


H,S03 


103. 


NH4CI 


10. 


Ba(OH)2 


57. 


Hg 


104. 


(NH)2C03 


IL 


BaSO* 


58. 


HgCU 


105. 


NH4NO3 


12. 


Bi 


59. 


HgN03 


106. 


NH4OH 


13. 


BiCl3 


60. 


Hg(N03)2 


107. 


(NH4)cS 


14. 


Bi(N03)3 


61. 


HgO 


108. 


(NH4)2S04 


15. 


Br 


62. 


I 


109. 


Ni(N03)2 


16. 


C charcoal, animal charcoal. 


63. 


K 


110. 


P red and yellow. 


17. 


CHCI3 


64. 


KAl (804)2 


111. 


Pb 


18. 


C,„Hi6 


65. 


KBr 


112. 


Pb(C2H302)2 


19. 


CS2 


66. 


KCN 


113. 


Pb(N03)2 


20. 


CsH.jOs 


67. 


KCl 


114. 


PbO 


21. 


C.^Ha^Oii 


68. 


KCIO3 


115. 


S 


22. 


(C6HloOo)x 


69. 


KCIO4 


116. 


Sb 


23. 


CH30H 


70. 


K,Cr207 


117. 


SbCls 


24. 


C2H50H 


71. 


KsCrO* 


118. 


SbjOa 


25. 


(C2H5)20 


72. 


K4Fe(CN)6 


119. 


Sn 


26. 


C3H5(0H)3 


73. 


K2FeiCN)6 


120. 


SnCU 


27. 


CaCU fused and crystals. 


74. 


KHC4H4O6 


121. 


SnCU 


28. 


CaOCU 


75. 


KI 


122. 


Sn(N03)2 


29. 


CaC03 


76. 


KMnOi 


123. 


SrCl2 


30. 


CaFU 


77. 


KNO3 


124. 


Sr(N03)2 


31. 


CaO 


78. 


KNO2 


125. 


Zn dust and granulated. 


32. 


CaS04-2H20 


79. 


KOH 


126. 


ZnS04 


33. 


(CaSOJs'H^O 


80. 


K2SO4 


127. 


Litmus 


34. 


CdS04 


81. 


KSCN 


128. 


Methyl-orange. 


35. 


Co(N03)2 


82. 


KSb (C4H406)2 


129. 


Cochineal. 


36. 


CrCU 


83. 


Mg wire. 


130. 


Indigo. 


37. 


Cu foil wire filings. 


84. 


MgCl2 


131. 


Colored calico. 


38. 


CuCl 


85. 


MgCOa 


132. 


Phenolphthalein. 


39. 


CUCI2 


86. 


MgS04 


133. 


Candles. 


40. 


Cu(N03)2 


87. 


Mn02 


134. 


Splinters. 


41. 


CuO wire form and powdered. 


88. 


MnSO* 


135. 


Paraffin. 


42. 


CuSOi 


89. 


Na 


136. 


Soda-lime. 


43. 


Fe wire and filings. 


90. 


Na2B407 


137. 


Sodium amalgam. 


44. 


FeCl3 


91. 


NaCl 


138. 


Square glass 4 x 4 in. 


45. 


FeS 


92. 


NaC2H302 


139. 


Meat. 


46. 


FeSOi 


93. 


NajCOs 


140. 


Vegetables. 


47. 


HCl 


94. 


NaHC03 







The chemicals for this work need not be chemically pure, but thejr 
should be of a good grade. It is always advisable to keep a small stock 
of c. p. material in the laboratory for special work. 

Texts. Essentials of Chemistry, Hesler and Smith; An Elementary 
Study of Chemistry, McPherson and Henderson; First Steps in Chem- 
istry, Ostwald; Introduction to Chemistry, Remsen. 



Courses of Study. 61 



Group IV. 



AN OUTLINE FOR A YEAR'S WORK IN 
AJN uuii. PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

we have not recommended the eontinuadoBO^^ KS 

fcSri.^1 fts rtffuat^o?d?sirrble^°"wher^l such is\he case, the following out- 
line will be of service. THE EARTH. 



1 Davis, Physical Geography, pp. 8-17 (edition of 1899). 



^- ^f ?jf unW^eTslltaSfup'o'i millions of systems, of which our 
2 Thf eartTisre rtke planets of our solar system, which com- 
prises the sun and the planets. 

B The relation of the earth to the sun. 

1. Distance from sun, 92.9 million miles. 

9 T?pvnlves around the sun once m dbb? aays. 

I Ihlmlss of tSe earth is only 1/315511 of the mass of the sun. 

i Thl Sh depends upon the sun for its heat and light. 

^- 'f 'it^l'^.^tori^^s^^r^^^^^^^^ frT'L,tu.e, Uranus, Saturn, 

2' wScft^'tKaneS^Vn^rer^^^^^^^^^^ the earth is. 

S Sme of the p^lanets revolve more rapidly around the sun, some 
more slowly, than the earth does. • ji 4.i,„„ 

4. Some of thl planets rotate more rapidly, some less rapidly, than 

5. Ne*w!urinus, Saturn and Jupiter are larger than the earth; 

the other planets are smaller. 

D. The shape of the earth. 

1. Early conception that the earth was flat. 

2'. A globe or spheroid. 
E The size of the earth. 

1. How drtermmed?^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^g^^ Davis's 

Physical Geography, appendix B, p. 38b.) 
b Bv traveling around the earth and making measurements. 
■ (The diameter of the earth is about 8000 miles; the dis- 
tance to either pole from the center is about thirteen 
miles less than from the center to the equator.) 

P The motions of the earth. • ocki 

1 Revolution around the sun. Earth goes around sun once m 365, 

days, i. e., once a year. 

G. Latitudes and longitudes. 



62 - High School 

the atmosphere. 

EEFEEBNCES. 

1. Davis, Physical Geography, pp. 18-56. 

2. Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geography, pp. 223-273. 

3. Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geologic Processes, vol. I, pp. 5-7. 

A. Is the atmosphere part of the earth, or an envelope? (Mass of the 

air is i/dsooooo of that of the earth.) 

B. Height of the atmosphere, how determined? 

1. By means of falling meteorites. They give height of at least 

100 miles. 

2. Aufora borealis. Height 600 miles. 

3. The determination of the sphere of gravitative control of the 

earth gives 620,000 miles as the outside limit of the atmos- 
phere. 

C. Constituents of the atmosphere. 

1. Nitrogen — it is a dilutent; it has mechanical effects in connec- 

tion with the wind; it influences pressure; diathermous to 
heat. 

2. Oxygen — supports animal life and combustion; diathermous to 

heat. 

3. Carbon dioxid (about 4 parts in 10,000). 

a. Sources of — animal life, and combustion, expiration, and 

vulcanism. 

b. Uses. 

1. Plant life. 

2. Weathering. 

3. Absorbent of heat. 

c. Is there more carbon dioxid in the air in winter than in 

summer? 

4. Dust. 

a. Effects of. 

1. Causes condensation of vapor. 

2. Diffusion of light. 

3. Colors of the sky. The bright sunset after the vol- 

canic explosions of Krakatoa in 1883 were due to 
dust in the air. 
6. What keeps the dust in the air? 

D. Is air a mixture, or a chemical compound? 

E. The heat of the atmosphere. 

1. What is heat? The movement of the molecules; temperature is 

the measurement of impact. 

2. How is heat transmitted? 

3. The thermometer. 

a. Principle of. 

b. Why take 32° below freezing as zero? (This was the low- 

est temperature obtainable from a mixture of snow and 
ice.) 

4. Isothermal lines. 

5. What are the factors influencing temperature? 

6. Why are high altitudes colder than low altitudes? 

7. What influence annual range of temperature? 

8. What influence the daily range of temperature? 

F. The pressure of the atmosphere. 

1. How is its existence proved? 

2. Amount of pressure — how measured? 

3. Principle of the barometer. How high must we go above the sea- 

level to have mercury drop one inch? 

4. Is pressure constant at any point? What affects pressure? 

5. Importance of differences of pressure. 

a. Cause winds. (What are isobars? What kind of pressure 
at the equator?) 



Courses of Study. 63. 

G. The moisture of the atmosphere. , , » 

1. Evaporation takes place from all moist surfaces; molecules from 
the surface of the water' fly off from collision. 
a. Upon what does the rate of evaporation depend? 
h. When will evaporation from a surface cease? 
2 Relative humidity — depends on temperature. 

3. Absolute humidity — the absolute amount of water vapor m the 

air. 

4, Condensation. 

a. Conditions for condensation. 

1. Sufficient humidity for saturation. 

2. Dust particles. 

6. Forms which the condensed water vapor takes. 



1. 


Dew. 


2. 


Frost. 


3. 


Fog. 


u. 


Clouds. 


5. 


Rain. 


6. 


Snow. 



H. General circulation of the atmosphere. 

1. What is wind? Air in motion along the surface. 

2. Immediate cause of winds? 

3. Ultimate cause of wind? 

4. Strength of wind? 

5. Classes of winds. 

6. Interference with the general circulation of winds, 

a. Secondary circulation. 

6. Unequal heating of land and sea. 

c. Inequalities of land surface. 

7. Results of interference with the general circulation. 

a. Cyclones. 

b. Anticyclones. 

c. Hurricanes. 

1 . Compare with cyclones. 

2. Kind of movement. 

3. Occurrence of. 

4-. Time of occurrence. 
5. Direction. 

d. Tornadoes. 

1. What? A cyclone of small diameter, high gradient^ 

and circular motion. 

2. When? In the late afternoon in the late spring and 

summer. 

3. Size? About twenty-five miles by one-fourth mile. 
i- Movement. 

5. Destruction. 

6. Causes of tornadoes. , 

e. Cloudbursts. 

1. What? Local. Very rapid condensation, of short 

duration. 

2. Cause. 

3. Where? 
/. Periodic winds. 

1. Monsoons. 

2. Land and sea breezes. 

3. Mountain valley breezes. 
g. Miscellaneous winds. 

1. Hot winds associated with cyclones. 

2. Cold winds associated with anticyclones. 

3. Chinook winds. 
h. Effects of winds. 

1. Distribution of temperature. 

2. Distribution of moisture. 



64 High School 

H. General circulation of the atmosphere — continued. 
8. Climate. 

a. What? The average meteorological conditions of an area 

for a long time. 

b. Elements? 

1. Temperature. 

2. Wind. 

3. Moisture. 

c. Factors affecting climate. 

1. Nearness to sea. 

2. Latitude. 

3. Altitude. 

4. Winds. 

5. Topographic relations. 

d. Climate zones — bases for? 

1. Mathematical — latitude. 

2. Isotherms. 

3. Moisture. 
i. Winds. 

e. Divisions of climate in the north temperate zone. 

1. Moist and dry. 

2. Equable and variable. 

3. Interior and coastal. 

4. Low and high altitudes. 
/. Weather. 

1. What? 

2. Maps. 

3. Value of weather maps. 

OCEANS. 

KEFEEENCES. 

1. Gilbert and Brigham, Physical Geography, pp. 279-301. 

2. Davis, Physical Geography, pp. 57-90. 

3. Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geologic Processes, pp. 309-374. 

4. Thompson, Voyage of the "Challenger," 2 vols. 

5. Thompson, Depth of the Sea. 

6. Barker, Deep Sea Soundings. 

7. Wyld, Thalassa. 

8. Shaler, Sea and Land. 

A. Distribution. 

B. Depth. 

C. Topography of the bed. 

1. Very flat; on the land, degradation is more important than ag- 

gradation; in the ocean, aggradation is more important than 
degradation. 

2. Some irregularities. 

D. Life. 

E. Comp(5sition. Every 100 parts of sea-water contain about 3.44 parts 

by weight of mineral matter in solution. The principal acids, solids 
and bases are shown in the following table (see C. and S., p. 309) : 

Chlorid of sodium 77 . 758 

Chlorid of magnesium 10 . 878 

Sulfate of magnesium 4 . 737 

Sulfate of lime 3 . 600 

Sulfate of potash 2 . 465 

Bromid of magnesium 217 

Carbonate of calcium .345 

100 

F. Movements. 

1. Causes of — 

a. Unequal densities. 

b. Winds. 



Courses of Study. 65 

F. Movements — continued. 

1. Causes of — 

c. Attraction of sun and moon. 

d. Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides. 

e. Differences of level of the surface. 

2. Classes of movement. 

a. Waves. 

b. Currents. 

c. Tides. 

1. Cause of. 

2. Variation in the height of tides at the same place. 

d. Drift. 

e. Creep. May be vertical or horizontal. 

G. Temperature. 

1. Horizontal variation in the Red sea from 90° to 28° F. 

a. Cause of — 

1. Latitude. 

2. Currents. 

3. Winds. 

4-. Distribution of land. 
5. Storms. 

2. Vertical variation. 
H. Deposits at the bottom. - 

1. Deep sea — mud, ooz;e, etc. 

2. Shallow water — muds, sands, gravel, etc. 

OUTLINE OF WORK ON LAND. 

A. Agents modifying land. 

1. Gradational agents. 

a. Agents of weathering. 

b. Ground-water. 

c. Streams. 

d. Wind. 

e. Shore-lines. 
/. Glaciers. 

g. Lakes. 

2. Vulcanism and diastropism. 

a. Volcanoes. 

b. Earthquakes. 

c. Changes of, level. 

B. The great topographic forms. 

1. Plains and plateaus. 

2. Mountains. 

WEATHERING. 

REFERENCES. 

1. Davis, pp. 99-103'; 263-275. 

2. Mill, §§ 310-318. 

3. Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, ch. 2; also 105-109. 

A. General notion of. 

B. Agents of disintegration in weathering; discussion of this work. 

1. Solution. 

2. Changes of tempierature. 

a. Not involving freezing-point. How disruption is affected; 

where the process is important. 

b. Involving freezing-point. 

3. Plants and animals. 

a. Root splitting. 

1. Lichens. 

2. Ants. 

S. Earthworms. 
-5 



66 High School 

B. Agents of disintegration — continued. 

4. Beating of rain. 

5. Gravity. 

6. Wind (discuss briefly here). 
Cc Rate of weathering. 

1. Character of rock undergoing change. 

2. Climate. 

3. Rate of removal of waste. 

D. Relation of weathering to erosion. Weathering is preparation for 

transportation. 

E. Results of weathering. 

1. Formation of rock mantle. 

a. Discuss transition from soil to subsoil; to rock. 
6. Thickness of soil dependent on — 

1. Rate of formation. 

2. Rate of removal. 

c. Some examples of thickness: 300 feet in Brazil; 50 feet 

to 100 feet in some of Southern states. 

d. Does absence of soil mean that none is being formed? 

Kind of soil at any given place? Soils and man. 

F. Topographic results. 

1. Talus piles. 

2. Serrate topography of high altitudes. 

3. Columns, boulders of disintegration, etc., due to differential 

weathering. 

GROUND-WATER. 

EEFERENCES. 

1. Davis, pp. 224-230. 

2. Mill, §§ 313-317. 

3. Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, ch. 4. 

A. Facts about. 

1. Facts of existence of ground-water. How shown? 

2. Source of. 

3. What determines amount of rain-water which enters ground? 

a. Porosity of soil. 
6. Slope. 

c. Climate. 

d. Rate of precipitation. 

4. The level of ground-water. 

5. Is level of ground-water constant? How known? 

6. Form of water surface. 

7. Depth to which ground-water goes. How limited is descent? 

8. Amount of ground-water. 

B. Work of ground- water. 

1. Mechanical. 

2. Chemical. 

a. Solution. Can all waters dissolve? Solvent power varies 

with — 

1. Heat. 

2. Pressure. 

3. Content. 

b. Deposition. Due to — 

1. Change of temperature. 

2. Evaporation. 

3. Change of pressure. 

4. Mingling of solutions. 

5. Plants. 

c. Types of change brought about. 

1. Subtraction; rock disintegration. 

2. Substitution; petrifaction. 

3. Addition; rock cementation; veins. 
-4. New combinations. 



Courses of Study. 67 

C. Results of work of ground- water. 

1. In weathering — already discussed. 

2. Caves and cave deposits. 

3. Sinks. 

4. Natural bridges. 

5. Creep, slump, and landslides. 

D. Springs. 

1. Notion of. 

2. Types of — 

a. Hillside spring. 

6. Fissure spring. 

c. Artesian wells. 

d. Geysers. 

1. What? 

2. Where? 

3. Phenomena of eruption. 

i. Cause of eruption and steam. 

5. Fate of geysers. 

6. Deposits about geysers. 

STREAM WORK. 
See Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, ch. 3. 

I. — Development of a Valley. 
See Wisconsin Survey Bulletin No. 5, ch. III. 
A. Take hypothetical case of newly emerged coastal plain with uniform 
seaward slope. 

1. Conditions for sheet erosion without valleys. 

2. Concentration of run-off. How secured. Results. 

a. Single slight depression near and at right angles to shore. 

3. Growth of gully in three dimensions: gully-hood to ravine-hood 

to valley-hood. 

4. Direction of headward growth. 

5. How the valley gets a stream. 

6. Intermittent and permanent streams. Interrupted valley growth 

in early life; uninterrupted growth later. 

7. Tributaries. 

8. The volume of the stream; conditions determining climate gra- 

dient. 

9. Velocity of stream; conditions determining. 
10. The work the stream does. 

a. Transportation. 
6. Corrasion. 
c. Deposition. 

II. — Transportation by Streams. 
See Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, pp. 109-113. 

A. How the stream gets its load. 

1. Wears or dissolves it from bed or sides of channel. 
2! Receives it from — 

a. Tributaries. 

b. Side slopes ; delivered by wash or gravity. 

c. Wind. 

B. How the load is carried. 

1. Mechanically. 

a. Rolled down bottom. 

b. In suspension. How accomplished? A particle dropped 

again and again, 

2. In solution. 



6g High School 

C. Velocity and transporting power ; development of law. 

1. Dependent on velocity. 

2. Velocity depends on what? 

D. Some examples of amount of material transported by streams. 

1. Mechanically. 

2. In solution. 

III. — Corrasion of Streams. 
See Chamberlin and Salisbury, pp. 113-116. 

A, Practical inability of clear water to corrade. Case of Niagara river. 

B, The tools of the stream. 

C Rate of corrasion. Discuss as the chief determinants, the influence 
of— 

1. The character of the rock. 

a. Hardness. 

b. Structure. Consider : 

1. Stratified versus massive rocks. 

2. Horizontal versus inclined beds. 

3. Inclined beds, the stream flowing (a) with dip, (b) 

against dip, (c) with strike. 

c. Chemical composition. Solubility. 

2. Velocity of stream. 

3. Load. 

a. Amount. 

b. Character; as shape and hardness. 

4. Stream subject to great and sudden fluctuations versus one of 

nearly constant volume. 

IV. — Erosion Cycle; its Stages. 
See Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, pp. 75-87. 

A. Land surface unaffected by streams. Its erosion history unbegun. 

B. Topographic youth. 

1. Surface affected by narrow, steep-sided valleys. Lakes and falls 

often present. 

2. Flats are at this stage the inner-stream uplands. 

3. Narrowing of intervalley uplands. 

a. Wash on valley sides. 
' b. General weathering processes on slopes. 

c. Tributaries. 

C. Topographic maturity. 

1. Characteristics: Maximum of slope and run-off; hill and valley 

country. Many more streams than in youth; country com- 
pletely dissected by erosion lines. 

2. Consider influence upon topography at this stage of — 

a. General altitude of region and nearness to the sea. 

b. Rock structure; horizontal versus folded beds. 

D. Topographic old age. 

1. Characteristics: Shallow, wide-open valleys. Low, rolling in- 
terstream areas. Sluggish, meandering rivers. 

E. Final development of — 

1. Pene-plain. 

2. Base-level plain. (This accomplished first near the sea.) 

F. The term "cycle of erosion." 



Courses of Study. 69 

\. Special Features Resulting from Special Conditions of Erosion. 

A. Bad-lands topography. 

1. Conditions for — 

a. Considerable altitude. 

6. Unindurated rocks. ^ ^- j; v. i. 

c. Generally arid climate, with marked concentration o± what 

rain is received. 

d. Absence of vegetation. 

e. Horizontal strata for best development. 

2. Developed in early mature stage of erosion. 

3. Where formed? 

B. Canyons. 

1. Notion of. ; , 

2. Conditions for — 

a. Considerable altitude. 

h. Dry climate. 

c. Running water. 

d. Such a condition of the rocks as will permit their standing 

in steep walls. 

C. Rapids and falls. 

1. General conditions for. 

2. Discuss with diagrams, using horizontal strata, the possible 

change from rapid to falls to rapids. 

3. Other ways in which falls may develop. 

a. Over fault scarps — Colorado. 

h. When forced to take new course — Niagara. 

c. When streams overflow lava — dams. 

d. Hanging valleys. 

D. Narrows. 

1. Determining conditions. 

2. Erosion stage at which conspicuous. 

E. Elevation due to differential erosion. 

1. Mesas. 

2. Buttes. 

3. Hogbacks. 

4. Monadnocks. 

5. Plugs, dike ridges, etc. 

F. Natural bridges. 

1. Developed in connection with waterfalls. 

2. Developed from caverns. 

VI. — Stream Piracy and Adjustment. 

A. Piracy. 

1. What? , , „ ^ 

2. How accomplished? Captor has advantage of deeper valley, due 

to inequalities of volume, load, or hardness. 

3. Examples. (See "Laboratory Material.") 

B. Stream adjustment. 

1. What it means. 

a. Most common in region of folded strata. 

VII. — Effects of Changes of Level. 

A. Uplift. .,. _, ,,. . 

1. Equal rise everywhere, coast in same position. Resulting ter- 

races. Resulting longitudinal profile. 

2. Entrenched meanders. 

3. Lengthwise and crosswise valleys. 

4. Pene-plain levels. 

B. Subsidence. 

1. Drowned valleys. 

a. All parts of basin sinking equally. 

b. Basin sinking unequally. 



70 High School 

VIII. — Stream Aggradation. 

A. Why a stream deposits. When overloaded due to — 

1. Decrease in gradient. 

2. Decrease in amount of water, due to evaporation, absorption. 

3. Change in shape of channel. 

4. Overloaded by tributaries. 

5. Change in character of material. 

6. Checking of current in flowing into body of standing water. 

B. Places of chief deposit by rivers. 

1. At base of steep slopes in its upper course. 

2. On flood-plains. 

3. At the debouchure. 

C. Topographic features due to stream deposition. 

1. Cones and fans. 

2. Flood-plain features. 

a. What is a flood-plain? 

b. The deposit over the flood-plain; natural levee. 

c. Meandering of streams; oxbows. 

d. Size of some flood-plains : Mississippi, 50,000 square miles, 

and average thickness of alluvium, fifty feet. 

3. Deltas. 

a. How formed. 

b. Distribution of deltas. 

c. Why do not all streams have deltas? 

d. Rate of growth. 

1. Determinants. Some examples: 

e. Size of deltas. 

1. Ganges, 50,000 square miles. 

2. Mississippi, 12,000 square miles. 

4. Terraces. 

a. What? 

6. How formed? They result from — 

1. Uplift of basin. 

2. Removal of obstruction. 

3. Normal progress of valley development. 
^. Withdrawal of excess of load. 

WORK OF THE WIND. 
See Chamberlin and Salisbury, PP- 20-39. 

A. Transportation. 

1. How it gets it material. 

a. Picks it up. 

b. Extraterrestrial. 

c. From volcanoes. 

2. How kept in suspension. 

a. Upward currents. 
6. By friction of air. 

3. Distance to which material is carried. 

4. Transportation of dust important wherever — 

a. Strong wind. \ 

c. LaJk'of v^egetation. [ Sage-brush plains. 

d. Earthy matter. ) 

B. Erosion — abrasion. 

1. How? 

2. Where an important agent of erosion? 

3. Topographic results. 

a. Toadstool effects. 

6. Etching out of soft rock. 

c. Polishing and shaping of stones. 



Courses of Study. 71 

C. Deposition. 
1. Dunes. 

h. Where? Wherever dry sand is exposed to the wind. 

1. Shores. 

2. Dry valleys. 

c. How formed? (See Chamberlin and Salisbury, vol. I, p. 

' 24 '^ 

d. Height of dunes, 200 to 300 feet; 10 to 20 feet commonly. 

1. Strength of wind. 

2. Supply of material. 

3. Size of grains. 

e. Migration of dunes. 

1. How accomplished. , ^ v v oo\ . 

2. Examples (see Chamberlm and Salisbury, p. 32) . 

(a) Burial of orchard in New Jersey; (&) church 
in Germany— 1800, 1839, 1869. 
3 How stopped. (Between 1826 and 1838 the govern- 
ment spent $28,000 to fasten dunes on harbor 
shores of Provincetown, Mass., by beach grass.) 
2 Loess (see Chamberlin and Salisbury, p. 22), 
a. Description; physical character. 

h. Where found. China: Source; thickness, 1000 feet. 
Europe. United States. . -. , • , 

c. Origin: Wind; sediment of smaller rivers of glacial 
period. 

SHORE-LINES. 

See Chamberlin and Salisbury, pp. 326-351. 

A. Facts of shore-lines horizontally considered. 

1, Regular. 

a. Straight. 
6. Curved. 

2. Irregular. Types of irregularity. 

a. Reentrance of water. 

1. Large — Hudson bay, etc. 

2. Small — Delaware bay, etc. 
6. Projection of land. 

1. Parallel to the general trend. 

2. Normal to the general trend, 
c. Distribution of — 

1. By continents. 

2. In latitude. . - » , ■, 

3. With reference to relief of land. 

B. As they are vertically considered. _ 

1 Low, more often regular, m vertical sense. 
2. High, more often irregular, in vertical sense. 

C. Forces at work upon shore-lines. 

1. Diastrophism. 

a. Uplift. 

6, Subsidence. 

2. Gradation. 

a. Degradation. 

^' ^th phas'es of work done by winds, rivers, waves and 
littoral currents, currents (ocean), glaciers, shore 
ice. 

3. Vulcanism. 

a. Constructive. 

6. Protective. , . ^. » i • j 

4. Above forces usually work in combination of some kina. 



72 High School 

D. Conditions affecting the operation of forces. 

1. Strength of waves. 

a. Determinants. 

1. Strength of wind. 

2. Depth of water. 

3. Expanse of water. 
6. Examples. 

2. Concentration of blows. Determined by angle of incidence. 

3. Resistance of rock. 

a. Hardness of. 

6. Structure of. Consider — 

1. Horizontal beds. 

2. Beds dipping seaward. 

3. Much- versus little-jointed rocks. 

4. Accessories : 

a. Clear waves ineffective against hard rock; shown by bar- 
nacles being as numerous after as before great storms of 
Outer Hebrides. 

6. Work done by aid of — 

1. Rock fragments. 

2. Air. In cliffs with cracks and joints, waves drive air 

with prodigious force; its contraction and expan- 
sion a powerful agent. 

3. Ice. 

E. Shore-line features, resulting from above. 

1. Initial forces resulting from diastrophism. 

a. Uplift — gives regular, simple shore-line. 

6. Subsidence — produces irregular, embayed coast. 

2. The cliff. 

a. Its formation. (See C. and S.) 

6. Declivity of cliff depends on? 

c. The wave-cut terrace. 

d. The wave-cut and built terrace. 

e. Example of rate of retreat of land: Six feet in one year on 

Nantucket. 

3. The beach of transportation. Develop idea of littoral current. 

a. Origin of shore drift. 

1. From cliffs. 

2. From rivers. 

4. Depositional forms. 

' a. Current holds its direction and shore-line during — 

1. Spit. 

2. Hook. 

3. Bar. 
^. Loop. 

6. Barrier on shelving coast. 

F. Stages in coast-line development. 

G. Application of foregoing to coasts, especially of North America. 

References : 

1. Topographic Atlas of United States, folio 1. 

a. Fiord coast. 

b. A barrier-beach coast. 

2. United States Geological Survey, Monograph I, ch. II. 



Courses of Study. 7a 

PRESENT GLACIERS. 

REFERENCES. 

1. Chamberlin and Salisbury, ch. 5, esp. pp. 238-253 and 268-286. 

2. New Jersey Survey, vol. V, ch. 3, esp. pp. 68-76. 

3. Wisconsin Survey, Bulletin V, ch. 5, esp. pp. 73-105. 

A. Facts about. 

1. What? 

2. Under what conditions formed? 

a. Where do these conditions obtain? 

h. Snow-line and its position in tropics; in other latitudes — 
8800 feet in Switzerland. 

3. Transformation of snow into ice. Neve. 

4. Movement of glaciers. 

a. Fact of. 

h. Controlling conditions. 

c. Differential movement. 

1. Mer de Glace, in summer 27 inches in center and 19 
inches near sides. 

d. Examples of rate: Swiss glaciers, 1 to 3 inches or 4 inches 

per day. Greenland, average of edge, 1 inch per week; 
locally, 50 to 60 feet per day. 

5. Lower limit. 

a. How determined? 

6. Where, with reference to snow-line? In Switzerland 3500 

feet below (average). Within 670 feet of sea-level in 

case of one New Zealand glacier. 
c. Oscillation of end. 

1. Causes. 

2. Examples: Alaska retreating; some Norwegian re- 

treating, some advancing; 35- to 40-year cycle in 
Switzerland. 

6. Surface features; irregularity. 

a. Due to debris. 

6. Due to unequal melting following cracking. 

c. Change in slope. 

B. Types of glaciers. 

1. Ice caps. 

a. Greenland, 300,000 to 400,000 square miles. 
6. Antarctic, 3,000,000 square miles. 

2. Valley glaciers. 

a. Alpine type, 

h. High-latitude type. 

3. Piedmont glaciers. 

4. CliflP glaciers. 

C. Work of glaciers. 

1. Kinds of work done. 

a. Transportation. 

1. How load is obtained. 

2. Transportation by ice versus by rivers. Moraines: 

Lateral, medial, and ground. 
6. Erosion. 

1. Tools. 

2. Characteristics of surfaces and rocks worn. 
c. Deposition, 

Ice deposits versus water deposits. Moraine; terminah 

2. Topographic effects. 

a. Shaping of hills; Roche Moutonnee. 

h. V- to U-shaped valleys. 

c. Hanging valleys. 

d. Fiords. 

e. Rock basins, at slopes of mountains, etc. 
/. Depositional features. 



74 High School 

past glaciers. 

See Davis, pp. 330-346. 

A. General discussion of glacial period. 

1. Centers of dispersal. 

2. Extent of glaciated area. 

3. The glacial period complex; several advances of the ice. Five 

epochs known. 

4. Driftless area. 

5. Cause of glacial climate. 

6. Time relations. Time since last much shorter than time between 

first and last. 

B. Drift deposits. 

1. Unstratified. 

a. Moraines. 

1. Ground. 

2. Terminal: Where formed? Characteristics. 
h. Drumlins. 

2. Stratified. 

a. Karnes. 

b. Eskers. 

c. Outwash plains. 

d. Valley trains. 

C. Geographic effects. 

1. Reduce slopes. 

a. Effect on transportation. 
h. Increased arable land. 

2. Modification of soil. 

a. Amount increased. 
6. Physically mixed. 

3. Drainage. 

a. Lakes and marshes. 

1. Lakes, how formed. 
6. Floods diminished. 
c. Water-power. 

4. Change in acreage of land. 

a. Addition. Long Island covers bare rock. 
h. Subtraction. Lakes and marshes. 

D. Contrast between glaciated and non-glaciated areas. 

1. Topography — in unglaciated, elevations stand in definite rela- 

tions to drainage lines. 

2. Drainage — driftless well drained; in drift area, lakes, marshes, 

and undrained depressions. 

3. Mantle rock. 

a. Thicker in drift. 

6. Physically diverse. 

c. Contact with under rock. 

LAKES. 

See Chamberlin and Salisbury, pp. 368-374. 

A. Origin of basins. 

1. Due to crustal movements. 

a. Depressions are new land surfaces: Southern Florida. 
6. In mountains: Block mountain region of Oregon. 

c. Warped valleys. 

d. Earthquakes: "Sunken country"; Reelfoot lake, Tenn. 

2. Formed by river action. 

a. Oxbows. 

h. Delta lakes: Ponchartrain. 

c. Damming by fan: Tulare; Pepin. 

d. Rapid aggradation by main — ponding back of tributaries: 

Red river, Louisiana. 



Courses of Study. 75 

A Origin of basins — continued. 

3. Accidents to rivers. Damming by— 

a. Lava flow. 

b. Drift: Finger lakes. 

c. Landslides 

4. Formed by glaciers. 

a. See 3 : b, above. .-,... 

t Jf„TbSnsTice™osion"'canada, Finland, and western 
mountains. 

d. Marginal lakes: Agassiz, etc. 

5. Due to waves and currents; back of bars. 

6. Due to work of ground-water. Ponds m sinks. 

7. Due to volcanic action. 

a. See 3: a, above. 

b. In caldrons. Crater lakes. 

B. Life-history: Short-lived — 

1. Filling. 

2. Cutting down of outlet. 

3. Work of vegetation. 

4. Evaporation. 

€. Salt lakes. 

1. Conditions of formation. 

2. Where? 

3. Deposition. 

T>. Relation to man. 

I; #e?tility"f owlakeSS^rWheat region of Red River country.) 

3. Prevent destructive floods. ... i tt -4. j 04. +«^ 

4. Great Lakes and development of north-central United States. 

VOLCANOES. 

A. Definition of: "Restricted vent, out of which hot rock material 

comes." — Salisbury. 
1. Essential points. 

a. Vent. 

6. Discharge of hot rock. 

B. Facts about. 

1. Types of eruption. 

a. Violent. 
6. Quiet. 

2. Degrees of activity. 

a. Active. 

b. Dormant. 

c. Extinct. 

3. Products. 

a. Lava. 

b. Cinders (scoria). 

d. Vapors and gases. (H2S, H2O, CO2, SO2, HCl, CI, S.) 

4. Relations of adjacent vents. 

a. In activity. 

6. In height of lava. , ^^ • t^ 1 j- 

c. In kinds of material discharged: Vesuvius, Krakatoa, 

Mauna Loa, Stromboli. 

5. General phenomena. 

6. Destructiveness. 

a. Lava-flows. 

6. Ashes, cinders. 

c. Torrents. 

d. Earthquakes. 

e. Landslides. 



76 High School 

B. Facts — continued. 

. 7. Topographic results. 
a. Cones : 

1. Cinder cones: Mauna Loa; diameter 25 times height- 

2. Lava cones: Mount Shasta; diameter 7 times height. 
6. Plateaus. 

8. Number: 300 active; very many cones not yet eroded away. 

9. Distribution : 

a. Continents versus islands; one-third of present volcanoes- 

on continents. 

b. Nearness to sea. 

c. Latitude. 

d. In belts or lines. 

e. Mountains. 

/. Moving land. 
g. Young strata. 

10. Physical character. 

a. How stream moves. 

6. Section from top to bottom. 

c. Porphyry, glass, etc. Basaltic structure. Tuff. 

C. Volcanoes in past time. No known law governing distribution in time- 

Periods of greater and lesser energy and number. 

D. Eruptions and irruptions not volcanoes proper. 

1. Lava fields. 

2. Laccoliths. 

3. Sills. 

4. Dikes. 

E. Cause of valcanoes. 

. 1. Things to account for. 

a. Heat. Probably 3000° F. at surface. 

1. Primal ; four theories. 

(a) "Thin crust" theory. 

(b) This theory postulates — 

(c) That the earth is solid except for "localized" 

enclosures of molten matter" at various- 
depths from the surface. 

(d) That earth is solid throughout, but that rocks 

at some little distance from the surface are 
in a "potentially liquid state," kept solid only 
by the enormous pressure to which they are 
subjected. 

2. Secondary. 

(a) "Chemical" theory. 

b. Force. 

1. Steam and other gases. 

2. Gravity. 

3. Lateral pressure. 

F. Life-history of volcanoes. (See "Volcanoes of North America," by- 

Russell.) 

G. Notes on ejecta : 

1. Types of texture in igneous rocks: 

(a) Glassy; (6) compact; (c) porphyritic; (d) granitoid; 
(e) pyroclastic. 

See Scott's Geology, pp. 189-191. 

EARTHQUAKES. 

See Chamberlin and Salisbury, pp. 503-512. 

A. What? Tremors of appreciable violence, springing from sources; 

within the earth itself. 

B. Where? 



Courses of Study. 77 

€. Frequency. Japan, three or four per day. "Crust of earth is in a 
perpetual tremor." 

D. Phenomena of earthquakes. 

1 Series of elastic waves, spherical. ^ •„• . 

2. Amount of actual movement. Fraction of millimeter. 

3. Rate of propagation of wave. _ ^. -^ ^ i 

a Determining conditions. Elasticity and continuity of rock. 
b. Estimated rate. "Several hundreds to several thousands 
of feet per second at the surface." 

4. Depth affected. 

a. How position of flows is estimated. 

6. Most originate within 5 to 10 miles of surface. 

E. Causes of earthquakes. 

1. Fissuring. 

2. Faulting. 

3. Volcanic explosions. 

4. Avalanches. 

5. Falling in of caverns. 

6. Slipping of material on steep submarine slopes. 

a. On continental shelves (Japan). 
6. On delta front. 
E. Effects of earthquakes. 

1. Open up great cracks: India, New Zealand, Japan. 

2. Faults: Owen's valley, Cal., 1872; throw, 20 feet. 

a. Permanent changes of level: Chili, 1822; rose 3 to 4 feet 
for long distance. Off Greece, submarine fault scarp of 
1500 feet. 

3. Form permanent depressions in which lakes sometimes accumu- 

late. Sunken country. 

4. Landslides sometimes dam valleys. 

5. Effect on drainage. Destroy and make springs. 

6. If shock is in sea, sea waves. 

7. Great loss of life: Lisbon, 1755, 60,000; Calabria, 1783, 40,000. 

CHANGES OF LEVEL. 

A. Method by which any change in relative position of land may be de- 

tected. Comparison with sea. 

B. Change in relative altitude of land and sea may be due to — 

1. Change in position of land. 

2. Change in sea. 

Can it be told which has occurred? 

C Elevation, proofs of. 

1. Testimony of human erections: Bridges above water in south 

and west Crete; temple of Serapis; marks on Swedish coast. 

2. Elevated beaches, sea cliffs, etc.: Parts of southern California; 

east and west coast of Scotland. 

3. Marine shells. 

4. Regular, simple shore-line. 

D. Depression, proof of. 

1. Submerged human erections: Drowned buildings in east of 

Crete ; drowned buildings in Greenland. 

2. Buried forests. 

3. Drowned valleys: Hudson. 

4. Coral reefs and atolls. 

E. Evidences of movement away from seacoast. 

1. Tilted old beach lines : Iroquois beach, 140 feet above Lake On- 

tario at Lewiston ; 200 to 300 feet near Watertown. 

2. Some terraces. 

3. Interrupted profiles. 

4. Entrenched meanders. — 



78 High School 

THE GREAT TYPES OF LAND SURFACE. 
PLAIN AND PLATEAU. 

A. The great types of land surface. 

B. Notion of plain, plateau, and mountain. 

C. Types of plains. 

1. Large versus small. 

2. Flat versus rolling. 

3. High versus low. 

4. Fertile versus infertile. 

5. Moist versus dry. 

6. Treeless versus forested. 

7. Along coast versus away from coast. 

a. Around lakes. 

b. Between mountains. 

c. Along rivers. 

D. Different kinds considered. 

1. Coastal plain (Atlantic coastal plain), 

a. Origin. 

b. Soil belts. 

c. Fall line. 

2. River plains. 

a. Due to gradation (Marysville Butte maps) . 

b. Due to lateral plantation (Elk Point, Mont., map). 

3. Lake plains. 

a. Around lakes. 

b. Old lake floors (Sierraville, Cal.; Fargo, N. Dak.) 

4. Waste plains. 

5. Glacial plains. 

a. Recently glaciated (Madison sheet, Wisconsin). 

b. More remotely glaciated (Marion sheet, Iowa). 

6. Lava plains. 

E. Life-history of plains. 

F. Plateaus. 

k P°otoS of 'Sence [ between plateaus and plains. 
a. Plateau valleys versus plain valleys. 
•6. Cliifs characteristic of plateaus. 

3. Stages in plateau development. 

a. Enforce notion that there is no such thing as "old plateau."" 
6. Effect on topography of streams. Immediate; final. 

c. Plateau remnants — mesas and buttes. 

4. Man and plateaus. 

MOUNTAINS. 

A. Mountains in general. 

1. Definition. 

2. Division (LeConte). 

a. System. 

b. Range. 

c. Ridge: Subordinate part of range, formed — 

1. By separate folds formed at the same time. Parallel 

folds of Java range. 

2. By faulting. 

3. By erosion. 

B. Kinds. 

1. Block (fault) — Oregon. 

2. Folded — Juras. 

3. Domed — Black Hills. 



Courses op Study. 79 

B. Kinds — continued. 

4 -tT 1 • { Massive igneous core — Pike's Peak. 

4. Volcanic ^ ^^^p ridges— Tom; Holyoke. 

5. Circumdenudation. 

C. Discussion of (each of above). 

1. Origin. 

2. Life-history: Youth, maturity, old age. 

D. Influence of mountains on — 

1. Climate. 

a. Elevation and temperature. 

b. Effect of winds. 

1. Mountain and valley breezes (valley breeze, day; 

mountain, night) . 

2. Chinook. 

c. Rainfall: Two sides of Andes; valley of California versus 

Nevada; shores of Wales versus valley of Thames. 

2. Economic wealth. 

a. Fissuring. 

6. Exposure of deep deposits by erosion. 
3. " Trade routes — Spain. 

4. National boundaries: Eastern or western Europe; Chili and Ar- 

gentine controversy. 

5. Refuge for weak peoples: Highlands of Scotland; Switzerland. 

6. Influence on history: Alps in early Europe; mountains of 

Greece; mountains of Italy. 

7. Habits and customs of inhabitants: Language of Wales; cus- 

toms of North Carolina mountaineers. 

8. Dangers to inhabitants of. 

a. Avalanches. (Forest protection of Switzerland.) 
6. Landslides. (Valley of Ganges.) 

E. Topographic maps. 

1. Volcanoes. 

a. Young: Lassen Peak sheet; Mount Taylor. 

6. Older, various stages of demolition: Marysville; Shasta ;- 

San Francisco, 
c. Plugs: Crazy mountains, in Little Belt and Livingston 

folios. 

2. Igneous mountains. Massive igneous cores: Pike's Peak. 

3. Trap ridges: Holyoke (folio). 

4. Folded mountains. 

a. Stevenson, Ala. (folio). 
6. Kingston, Tenn. (folio). 
c. Harper's Ferry, Va. (folio, etc.) 

Differences in Erosion between High Altitudes and Low. 

F. Moisture. 

1. Often drier — especially in lee of mountain. 

2. Often wetter — especially on windward of mountain. 

3. Differences in form of precipitation. (Mountain streams do 

their work primarily when snow melts.) 

4. Differences in rate of precipitation. 

G. Wind. 

1. Much more effective in high altitudes. 
H. Temperatures. 

1. Greater range in higher altitudes. 

2. Much lower average in high altitudes. 
I. Differences in vegetation. 

1. Protecting or failing to protect against erosion. 



80 High School 

suggestions for laboratory and field work in 
physical geography. 

Laboratory and field work simply to supplement text and not an end in 
itself. Laboratory and field work to go hand and hand with text. 

Room. Any light room fitted with flat-topped tables. Case or set of 
drawers to keep maps and specimens in. Maps best kept in folders of 
wrapping-paper. 

Methods. In map work divide class into groups of four. Have maps 
arranged in duplicate sets, giving one set to each group. 

In field work divide into groups of 15 to 20. In all cases teacher must 
be thoroughly familiar with work before attempting to take class over 
ground. 

Relation of Field and Laboratory Work to Text. Text three days, 
field and laboratory work two days, about right proportion. Four to six 
field trips a year generally sufficient. 

Text Work. Teach text thoroughly. Supplement and illustrate by 
talks and assigned readings when possible. Teacher should be thoroughly 
familiar with material equivalent to that contained in Salisbury's Physi- 
ography or Gilbert & Brigham, Appleton. 

Good Reference Books for Teacher. 

Salisbury, Physiography, Holt & Co. 

Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, vol. I, Holt & Co. 

Mill, International Geography, Appleton. 

Ward, Practical Exercises in Meteorology, Ginn & Co. 

Scott, Introduction to Geology. 

Norton, Introduction to Geology. 

Fairbanks, Physiography. 

Brigham, Laboratory Manual Physiography, Appleton. 

Thrafton, Laboratory Manual Physiography, Ginn & Co. 

(Last five high-school texts, and may possibly be obtained as desk copies.) 

laboratory work. 
Map work — 

1. Teach meaning of topographic maps. Model may be used. 

Draw ideal contour map, as of conical mountain, etc. 

Draw profiles. 

Examine maps showing mountains, plateaus, and plains. 

2. Rivers or running water. 

' (a) Canyons illustrating downward cutting. 
Meanders illustrating lateral cutting. 
(6) Cycle — youth, maturity, old age. 

(c) Deposition — deltas, bows, islands, alluvial fans, levees, 
formation of oxbows, flood-plains, terraces. 

(d) Effect of unequal hardness of strata — ridges, hog-backs, 
mesas, buttes, escarpments. 

3. Ground-water. Study general topography of limestone region. 

4. Wind work — dunes, erosion (Nebraska). 

5. Glaciers — existing. 

erosion — cirques, U valleys, roches moutonnes. 
deposition — moraines, kames, drumlins. 

6. Plains — central, pene-plain, lacustrian, flood-plains, waste 

plains, glacial. 

7. Plateaus — erosion, vulcanism, folded, faulted. 
Mountain. 

8. "Volcanoes — old, young, lava plain. 

9. Coast-lines — erosion — sea -cliffs, heads. 

deposition — beaches, bars, spits, hooks, loops, ponds, 

barrier beaches, 
diastrophism — old beach lines. 
Identification of: Quartz, calcite, mica, feldspar, galena, gypsum, lime- 
stone, sandstone, shale, quartzite, igneous rock. 



Observations of : 



Courses of Study. 

METEOROLOGICAL. 



81 





Temp. 


Pres- 
sure. 


Wind. 


Clouds. 


Rain- 
fall.- 


Re- 




Dir. 


Vel. 


Kind. 


Amt. 


marks. 


7-17-8 A.M.. 


















7-17-2 P. M.. 


















7-17-8 P. M . . 



















Study of weather maps: 

1. Plot annual mean temperature of United States. 

Study relation of direction and strength of wind to isobars and 

quadrants of highs and lows. 
Relations of isotherms and isobars, highs and lows. Cold wave. 
Relation of humidity to highs and lows. 
Direction and rate of movement of highs and lows. 
Make forecasts for at least one month, preferably in winter, when 
storms are more regular. 

FIELD WORK. 

Things to be seen in Kansas: 

Running water: Erosion, deposition. 
Weathering of rock and production of soil. 

Work of underground water : Water level, sink-holes, springs, flow- 
ing wells, wells. 
Glacial drift, northeastern part north of Kansas river. 
Mountain west. 

APPARATUS NECESSARY. 

Map work: 

Topographic maps: United States Geological Survey. 
Mississippi river maps : Mississippi River Commission. 
Coast charts: United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
Geological folios: United States Geological Survey. 

Meteorolbgy : 

Daily weather maps. 

Thermometer. 

Barometer. 

Blank maps United States Weather Bureau, $1.40 per 1000. 

Mineralogical : 

Small cabinets containing 30 specimens, labeled and described, may 
be obtained from dealers for about $2. 

Note. — For valuable suggestions on the teaching of physiography, with reference 
especially to field and laboratory work, consult The Interstate Schoolman for May, 
June, and July, 1907, Hutchinson, Kan. 



-6 



82 High School 



AN OUTLINE FOR A HALF-YEAR'S WORK IN 
PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

I. The earth as a planet. 

1. Day and night due to rotation. Shape of the earth indicated by 

their succession. Size and rate of turning of the earth. Vari- 
ations in length of day and night explained. Inclination of 
the earth on its axis, movement in its orbit, and rotation. 
Day at the equator always 12 hours long. Day at the poles; 
at the polar circles. 

2. Change of seasons. Revolution of the earth about the sun neces- 

sary, but not sufficient in itself. Inclination of earth's axis 
and the parallelism of the same. The one perpendicular ray 
of the sun to the earth and its path. The equinoxes; solstices. 
The idea of an equinoctial storm questioned. The orbit of the 
earth elliptical; the earth nearest the sun about January 1; 
farthest from the sun in July. Compare the seasons of north- 
ern and southern hemispheres in consequence. Observe the 
variation in the time of sunrise and sunset; the change north 
or south in the position of the sun. Sketch the position of the 
earth in its orbit at the time of the change of seasons. 

3. The moon. Make drawings to show its changes from quarter 

to quarter. Its orbital movement. Near-moon and far-moon 
explained. Apparent movement north and south. Mass and 
distance of the moon. The moon's equator inclined 6 deg. 39 
min. to the ecliptic. 

4. The solar system. The sun. Inferior and superior planets. 

Satellites; meteors; morning and evening stars; the zodiac 
and its constellations. Nebular hypothesis. 

II. The atmosphere. 

1. The air is a part of the earth and not a more envelope. Its 

weight estimated as that of a layer of water covering the 
earth to a depth of 33 feet. Three-fourths of the atmosphere 
below the height of Mount Everest. The height to which air 
extends is shown by meteors to be more than 100 miles. The 
estimate based upon the aurora borealis is 400 miles. Beyond 
620,000 miles the earth's gravity could not hold the gases of 
the atmosphere. 

2. Composition of air. A mechanical mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, 

carbon dioxid and very small amounts of other gases. Water 
vapor present in varying quantities. The amount of vapor de- 
pends upon temperature. Point of saturation. At freezing- 
point a cubic foot of air will contain about 2 grains; while at 
80 deg. it will hold 12 grains. Absolute and relative humidity. 
Use of hygrometers. The dew-point. Clouds — classes. Forms 
assumed by vapor. Dust particles in the air — meteoric; ter- 
restrial. Function of. 

3. Pressure of the air. The barometer — construction and use. 

Different kinds — cistern, siphon, aneroid. Relation of volume 
to pressure; density; temperature. Height of barometer at 
sea-level; on Mont Blanc, 15 inches. Variation of barometer, 
as a rule, is opposite to that of the thermometer. Pressure at 
thirtieth parallel greater than at the equator. Mixtures of 
water vapor and air lighter than dry air. Low barometer of 
the polar regions. 

4. Isobars. Connect places of equal pressure during a certain 

period. Two belts of high pressure passing around the globe, 



Courses of Study. . 83 

II. The atmosphere — continued. 

one on each side of the equator. Between these two a belt of 
low pressure in the tropical regions. About the poles are two 
other areas of low pressure. Areas of pressure vary with sea- 
sons; different for land and water. Corrections of barometers 
for height and temperature. How to forecast weather from 
barometric readings. 

5. Temperature of the air. Just as an instrument was necessary 

to measure the pressure of the air, so with its temperature. 
The thermometer. The story of its construction. Establish- 
ment of freezing- and boiling-points. Kinds of thermometers. 
"The amount of heat received from the sun 2208 times that 
received from the interior of the earth." (Haughton.) Heat 
rays from the sun would pass through the air without loss if 
it were not for the water vapor in the air. Absorption varies 
with height of the sun, a vertical beam losing about 20 per 
cent, of its heating power; the morning and evening beams 
lose 95 per cent. The loss of heat to the air varies with lati- 
tude. The average for England's latitude is 50 per cent., says 
■ Thornton. Radiation of heat from the surface of the earth to 
the air. Influence of water vapor in the air shown by clouds, 
hindering radiation. Isotherms. Establishment of the heat 
equator. Vertical and lateral variations of temperature. 
Snow-line. Influence on plants, timber-line. 

6. Movements of the air. Due to variations in pressure; unequal 

heating of the earth's surface by the sun; amount of water 
vapor in the air. Illustrated by land- and sea-breezes ; how 
the land and sea vary, both as to insolation and radiation. 
Mountain and valley winds in mountainous regions. The wind 
blows up the valley by day and down the valley by night. 
Explain. Conditions in the torrid zone — vertical rays, large 
evaporation, surface-temperatures high. Low-pressure equa- 
torial belt. Poleward movement above the up-draught. Dol- 
drums. Trade-winds due to pressure equatorward. Rotation of 
the earth deflects trade-winds westward. Constant only upon 
the sea. Returning trades come to earth in the latitudes be- 
tween 30 deg. and 40 deg. Region called horse-latitudes. Be- 
yond the parallels of 40 deg. N. and S. are the prevailing 
westerlies, sometimes called the antitrades. Circumpolar 
whirls. Are monsoons deflected trade-winds? How the orbital 
movement of the earth causes the wind and calm belts to mi- 
grate. Example: In the Atlantic the northeast trades extend 
from 3 deg. N. to 26 deg. N. in March (vernal equinox) and 
from 11 deg. N. to 35 deg. N. in September (autumnal equi- 
nox). Climatic characteristics of the wind belts. The equa- 
torial belt is sultry, rainy, and marked by diurnal rather than 
seasonal changes. The trade-wind belts, air is dry, unable to 
rnaintain saturation on account of moving into warmer re- 
gions and the rainfall light. Constant winds, large evapora- 
tion, great saltness of surface waters. The horse-latitudes 
have light winds, frequent calms, dry air and light rainfall. 
The westerly winds distinguished by cyclones and anticyclones. 
Develop a law for the location of deserts. Distinguish be- 
tween continental and oceanic climates. Local winds. The 
Chinook; foehn; mistral; sirocco; simoon; harmattan; ty- 
phoon; tornado; waterspouts; blizzards; hot winds. The 
cyclone is the most important storm of the middle latitudes. 
The cause is not clear. They are areas of low pressure and 
may be due to excessive heating; still, they occur in winter. 
They may be due to eddies in the edge of the prevailing west- 



84 High School 

II. The atmosphere — continued. 

erlies. They have also been ascribed to magnetic disturb- 
ances possibly due to sun-spots. The anticyclone moves in 
the same direction as the cyclone but is descending air and 
blows outward. The weather of the United States is so 
largely influenced by the cyclones and anticyclones that 
teachers are urged to devote as much time as possible to 
them. Tropical cyclones compared with the above. Possibly 
due to strong convection currents. Controlled by prevailing 
winds. 

7. Weather and climate. What determines the weather of a place? 

The climate is the average weather of a locality. Diversity 
due to latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, the prevailing 
winds, the annual rainfall, topography, surface, soil. De- 
scribe the instruments used in a meteorological station. Ac- 
count for the variance between parallels and isotherms. The 
influence of forests. Regions of rainfall. Oceanic climate; 
continental; mountain and plateau. Changes of climate. 
Cycles indicated in Europe and America. Relation of climate 
to plants and animals; to man. 

8. The work of the atmosphere. Dust in the air. Evaporate rain- 

water or snow and a residue of dust is found. Sources of this 
dust. By abrasion. From volcanoes. Story of Krakatoa; how 
brilliant sunsets are seen after eruptions. Loess. Region of 
the. Hoang-ho. Of the Mississippi valley. How dust is re- 
tained in the air; upward currents. Removal of dust from 
lands. Sand. Cannot be taken up by air-currents as dust 
may be. Moved along the surface of the land. Dunes. Sand 
supplied by the sea. Atlantic coast; without much sand in 
region of winds from the land; dunes found where the pre- 
vailing wind is from the sea. Migration of dunes. Buried 
cities of Central Asia. Weathering. Example of iron-rust to 
show the work of oxygen. Action of carbonic-acid gas upon 
rock, called carbonation. Hydration. Action of freezing and 
thawing in breaking up rock. Talus at foot of cliffs. Work 
of plants and animals as an aid to weathering. Salisbury 
' sums up the work of the atmosphere as tending to lower the 

surface of the land, and the breaking up of material in prepa- 
ration for its removal. 

9. Life forms in the atmosphere. 

III. The hydrosphere. Includes the ocean, seas, lakes, rivers, ground- 

water, and the water-vapor of the atmosphere. Ocean-basins, 
epi-continental seas, mediterraneans, all divisions of the hy- 
drosphere. The term sea-level relative, since the waters are 
attracted by the land masses which rise above them. At the 
mouth of the Indus river, Salisbury says, the sea-level is 300 
feet higher than it is at the island of Ceylon. 

1. The topography of the ocean bottom. Greater part flat. Ab- 

sence of weathering and erosion. Irregularities: Volcanic 
cones, steep slopes connecting land masses with ocean-basins, 
valleys, ridges, banks or plateaus. 

2. Depths. The average depth of the ocean is put at 2J miles. 

The Pacific is the deepest. The greatest depth found is 
31,614 feet, near the Ladrone islands. Other notable depths 
are the Tuscarora, east of Japan; the Aldrich, near New 
Zealand; off the coast of Chili; and the Blake Deep, near 
Porto Rico. Explain instruments used in sounding. The 
deepest water is not over 1/20 heavier than equal volumes at 
the surface. 



Courses of Study. 85 

III. The hydrosphere — continued. 

3. Volume and mass of the ocean. If all the land were carried 

into the sea it would raise the water level about 650 feet. 
The mass or weight is about five times that of the land above 
the sea. Pressure. Increases at the rate of 1 ton per square 
inch for every 1000 fathoms vertically below the surface. 
The average pressure at sea -bottom is 2i tons to the square 
inch, although it increases to 5 tons at great depths. The 
density varies but slightly, but such as it is the compressi- 
bility of ocean water keeps the ocean level at 116 feet lower 
than it would be otherwise. The enormous pressure modi- 
fies the animals so that they are invariably dead when brought 
to the surface. 

4. Temperature of the ocean. Varies with depth and with latitude ; 

affected at the surface by diurnal and seasonal changes, by 
the winds and currents. Lateral variation of temperature. 
About 86 degrees at the equator, and 80 degrees for nearly 
all the tropical zone. In polar regions the surface tempera- 
ture is about 30 degrees F. In the temperate zone the varia- 
tion in temperature is quite regular, nearly 1 degree F. for 
1 degree latitude. The variation for the year is about 10 
degrees in this zone. The movement poleward of surface 
waters raises the temperature for western coasts in the tem- 
perate zone, while the equatorward movement of the deep 
sea impinging upon the eastern shores brings cold water to 
the surface. In the torrid zone the eastern shores are warmer 
than the western. Vertical temperature: The sun affects 
temperatures possibly 500 fathoms. At this depth the aver- 
age is 40 degrees F. in all latitudes and all seasons. On the 
ocean fioor, at great depths, the temperature is below even 
32 degrees F. The freezing-point for salt-water is 28 degrees 
F. The temperature of enclosed seas varies to a certain dis- 
tance, and then remains uniform, as 55 degrees in the Med- 
iterranean sea. Ice formed from salt-water expands a little 
as it freezes and therefore floats. It is called floe-ice. What 
is pack-ice? Icebergs are broken fragments from glaciers in 
Arctic lands. About one-sixth of their depth is above water. 
What isotherms mark the limits of bergs? The average tem- 
perature of the entire ocean is about 39 degrees F. It is 
therefore cold water with warm layers in the tropics. The 
ice-floe forms in northern Greenland — a shelf of ice, 120 feet 
wide at times and 30 feet above level of the floe. Ground ice 
is formed at the bottom of the sea — in the Baltic sea, for ex- 
ample. 

5. Movements of ocean water. The creep — from the equator pole- 

ward at the surface and from the polar regions equatorward 
at the bottom. Deflected by rotation. This movement sup- 
plies the sea-bottom with oxygen, essential to animal life. 
Wind-waves: due to friction of moving air; resembles the 
movement in a field of grain — the waves travel across the 
field while the grain retrains its place. Parts of waves: 
crest, trough, height, length, period. Great waves 1500 feet 
long, with velocity of 60 miles an hour. The motion in waves 
diminishes rapidly downward. Erosiye work of waves produces 
land-forms, such as cliffs, sea-caves, beaches, spits, and stacks. 
Currents. These are the most distinct feature of oceanic cir- 
culation. In low latitudes the currents flow westward. These 
are due to the trade winds. Between them flows the return 
counter-current, due to banking up of waters on the coast of 
Brazil. The return of the equatorial currents in the tem- 
perate zones is due to deflection by shore-lines and by rota- 
tion of the earth and by the prevailing westerlies. The Gulf 



86 High School 

III. The hydrosphere — continued. 

Stream and the Japan currents are really due to the equa- 
torial currents. Of late years the theory that these streams 
controlled the climate of the shores they strike has been 
stoutly disputed. The poleward movement of warm currents 
brings about return currents, which, moving equatorward, are 
known as cold currents. Currents seldom extend deeper than 
300 feet. Observe the monsoon direction of the currents of 
the Indian ocean. Tides, lunar and solar. Called spring 
tides when the earth, moon and sun are in a direct line. 
Called neap tides when at right angles. Compare the attrac- 
tion of the moon and sun. The former is nearly three times 
the greater when the differential attraction is considered. 
^ Diurnal tides — two high and two low. Account for intervals 
between them. Show the influence of near-sun or -moon and 
far-sun or -moon upon tides. Bring out annual tides. Tides 
differ from other movements of ocean water, as they extend to 
the sea-bottom. The height varies; in the open ocean only 2 
or 3 feet; upon the shores they may rise even to 50 feet. 
Effect of tides upon the earth's rotation. Work done by tides 
on coasts and in tidal rivers. The great bore of Han Kow. 
Small tides in lakes called seiches — -due to atmospheric pres- 
sure. 

6. Work of water on land. (1) Ground-water. All the water 

which falls on the land is disposed of as follows: by the run- 
off through surface streams, by evaporation, or by percola- 
tion. The relative amounts of these three vary according to 
such conditions as slope, soil, climate, and precipitation rate. 
That which soaks in descends to a hydrobathic line, the place 
of which depends upon pressure, temperature and character 
of rocks. The work done by this underground water is large. 
Rocks are disintegrated or cemented, and various rocks are 
dissolved. In connection with interior temperatures geysers 
may be formed, and thermal or medicinal springs. Give 
theory for geysers. Land-forms, such as caverns, natural 
bridges and sink-holes are due to ground-water. Spring-water 
contains carbon dioxid, and for this reason is able to dis- 
solve various mineral ingredients from the rocks passed 
through. Some of the chief classes of springs are calcareous, 
iron, salt, and siliceous. (2) The run-off. Ritter classifies 
rivers according to age, as young, mature and old. The 
amount and character of the work done by the streams varies 
with age. In young rivers, filled, and the course graded. 
Then the valley is widened, broad flood-plains are estab- 
lished, the head waters are extended by what is called piracy, 
and meanders are formed. When this work is done, and the 
system perfected in the tributaries, the river may be said 
to have reached maturity. From this state it passes into old 
age, in which the divides are low, the flood-plains broad, and 
the matter carried forward better dissolved. Sometimes 
crustal movements occur to revive the old river, to entrench 
itself more deeply, to extend its tributary valleys, and so es- 
tablish water-gaps. How streams are influenced by crustal 
movements is shown in the case of the Hudson, with its sub- 
marine gore-e, and the dismembering or engrafting of other 
streams. The flood-plains of large rivers and their deltas, 
and such extensive alluvial fans as found in the California, 
indicate the vast modifying power that streams have over the 
lithosphere. (3) The take-up by evaporation occasions some 
particular land-forms, such as playas and salinas. They 
emphasize the climatic conditions and imperfect drainage. 

7. Life in the ocean. Life, both animal and vegetable, is most 



Courses of Study. 87 

III. The hydrosphere — continued. 

abundant in the first hundred fathoms. No plants are found 
below a half mile. Why is this? Animals decrease in num- 
ber with depth, although they increase again in the ocean 
bottom if the cold currents reach the region. There is little 
life at the bottom of the Mediterranean sea. There are two 
great divisions of oceanic life: (a) Plankton (from the 
Greek, meaning "I wander"). This includes both animals 
and plants which are free to move about. This includes 
microscopic algae to whales. Some notable ones go to form 
oozes from their skeletons. These have in life the power to 
abstract carbonate of lime or silica from the water. (6) 
Benthos ("The bottom of the ocean"). This division in- 
cludes those attached to or creeping along the sea-bottom. 
They are found all over the oceanic world. They are dwarfed 
and delicate, adapted to great pressure and the cold, and 
many of them are blind, (c) Another method of outlining 
oceanic life is to consider pelagic, littoral and abyssal areas. 
Pelagic includes all life-forms of the open sea, whether drift- 
ing or swimming. Littoral includes the shore proper to the 
coralline zone of 40 fathoms. The abyssal includes the deep- 
sea, and contains most of the types of animals from Protozoa 
up to fishes. The physical characteristics of these three 
zones are varied and have left their impress upon the areal 
life. The pelagic, lightly built, delicate, bluish in color, with 
external organs for drifting and swimming. But there is 
also distribution of species, which shows that the sea has zones 
and boundaries like the dry land. The littoral is a vigorous 
world. Air, water and land meet. Tides flow, waves break, 
day and night are here, and change of seasons, and the num- 
ber of life-forms is vast. The abyssal has no light but phos- 
phorescence; the temperature is low and uniform; the pressure 
is great; there is calm; it has free oxygen and is plantless. 
(d) Fresh-water forms are divided into shore, surface and 
deep-water forms, and each embraces many plants and 
animals. 

IV. The lithosphere, or solid mass of the planet. 

1. The interior of the earth. Theories regarding it: (a) A shell 

from forty to several hundred miles thick, interior a molten 
mass; an objection to this theory is that the earth does not act 
as a fluid mass under the stress of the attraction of the moon 
and sun. (6) That the earth cooled at the center first by 
conduction, at the surface by radiation. This would imply an 
unsolidified part between the crust and the center. If vol- 
canoes were sourced in this layer their eruptions would occur 
at the same time, (c) That the earth is solid throughout. 
The central mass is potentially liquid. Remove the pres- 
sure and the matter beneath becomes liquid. This last theory 
is in favor at present. 

2. Secular movements of the earth's crust. (Seculum, "a genera- 

tion, age."). Sometimes called diastrophism. Elevation: 
Raised beaches are found several hundred feet above sea- 
level. Near Valparaiso Darwin found one 1300 feet above 
the sea. In Scotland beaches are found at various levels, indi- 
cating periods of crustal movement. Subsidence: Submerged 
forests, encroachments of sea upon land; fiords of Scotland. 
Cause of crustal movements probably due to contraction of 
the earth's interior and consequent adjustment of the crust. 
Coast-lines, divided into two classes in consequence of secular 
movements — those of the first class, or rising coasts, and those 
of the second class, or sinking coasts. An example of the first 



-88 High School 

IV. The lithosphere — continued. 

is that near Buenos Ayres. With on-shore winds this coast is 
favorable for the formation of sand-reefs, and is not so good 
for commerce as otherwise. Cliffs are not usual on these 
shores, but where tidal action is strong they may develop 
cliffs. Shore-lines of the second class are irregular: such as 
Norway's fiords occur on these coasts if glacial conditions 
have obtained. The action of the hydrosphere upon the bor- 
ders of the lands brings about such land forms as cliffs, stacks, 
beaches, and land-tied islands. Coastal platforms are due to 
these agencies. Coast-lines are also affected by climatic con- 
ditions: as the mangrove on the mud-flats of Florida and the 
coral growths where the temperature of the water is as much 
as 68 deg. F. 

3. Mountains, plains, and plateaus. The origin of mountains. 

Block mountains, such as the Stein mountains in Oregon; 
folded mountains, as the Jura; domed, the Black Hills. By 
erosion, circumdenudation and degradation in different forms. 
Distribution of mountains. Topographic features; systems, 
ranges, peaks, valleys; characteristics due to age and weather- 
ing, as subdued, worn down, or piedmont regions. Influence 
upon people: Isolation; barriers to commerce; control of occu- 
pations. Instances in history. Control of climate. Plains 
and plateaus. Have they been lifted up in place or has the 
region been degraded to their level? How plains and plateaus 
are modified. Activities at work upon them. Coastal plains. 
How formed. Arrangement of parts. Classes of. Cuestas. 
Influence upon people. 

4. Vulcanism. Theories for volcanoes. See theory (c) under dis- 

cussion of the interior of the earth. Distribution. About 
twelve regions of activity. Classes; phenomena; topographic 
results. Earthquakes. Theory for. Probably due to faulting 
of earth's crust. Instruments for measuring intensity of 
shocks. Topographic results. 

5. Activities bringing about changes on the lands, (a) Atmos- 

pheric: winds; temperature. (6) Hydrospheric : rain; dif- 
ferent forms of vapor, as snow, hail, fog, etc. (c) Biospheric: 
work of plants and animals upon the land. Conditions pro- 
duced by these activities: due to removal of soil; to weather- 
ing; deserts; atolls. Making of soil. Soil: primary division, 
local and transported. Local soils often named for origin, as 
granitic, limestone, etc. Transported soils named for agency 
by which they were moved, as glacial or jeolian soils; or from 
their position, as terrace soils; or from other characteristics, 
as sandy or clayey. A loam is usually defined as a mixture 
of sandy or clayey soils with more or less organic matter. 
Other names are peat, muck, loess, marl, etc. Subsoil is that 
part which underlies the soil proper, from which it differs in 
compactness and less amount of oxidation and decomposition. 
When impervious, it is called hard-pan. The color of the soil 
is due to carbonaceous matter or iron oxids. The first gives 
color to prairie and swamp soil, and the iron oxids give buff, 
yellow and red hues. Granite and gneiss also give rise to red 
and yellow soils. The age of soils extends to first rocks 
pushed above the hydrosphere, although not until the carbon- 
iferous period do we find soils preserved in place and form. 
Various forms of plant and animal life aid in the making of 
soils. The ant does a great deal of work ; the crawfish and the 
earth-worm also. The prairie-dog, badgers, and the wood- 
chuck, by burrowing, give passage for water into the soil. 



Courses of Study. 89 

IV. The lithosphere — continued. 

The action of plant life, such as swamp life, mosses, heat, 
shrubs and trees aid in formation of soil byallowmg water 
to penetrate more deeply, and by chemical action. 
6 Life-forms on the land. Review the previous work with the idea 
of emphasizing the various activities which bring about con- 
ditions, as of temperature, humidity, aridity, fertility, or 
sterility. Life-forms adapted to environment. Wallace s six 
main regions. (1) Paljearctic (Europe, northern Africa, 
northern and central Asia) ; (2) Ethiopian (Africa south of 
the Atlas mountains, and Madagascar) ; (3) Oriental (India, 
southeastern Asia and part of Malay archipelago); (4) 
Australian (Australia, with New Guinea, New Zealand,_ and 
Polynesia) ; (5) Nearctic (America as far south as Mexico) ; 
and (6) Neotropical (Central and South America, and the 
West Indies). The above grouping is based largely upon 
birds and mammals. For plants, the simplest system, perhaps, 
is Drude's, which consists of three main ones — boreal, austral, 
and tropical — with fourteen smaller regions. Mankind: a dis- 
tinct zoological genus : four varieties, corresponding to the four 
main continental divisions of the earth. Earliest human re- 
mains found on the Solo river in Java, in Pliocene deposits. 
Migrations in the Pleistocene age passed through Asia into 
America, Europe and Africa. Once there climate, soil, diet, 
heredity and time have modified them. Occupation arising 
from location made them hunters, fishers, herders, or tillers of 
the soil. They passed successively through the stone age, 
metal ages, with advent of letters into the historic age. The 
primary divisions of mankind are Ethiopic, Mongolic, Amer- 
ican and Caucasic — in all, over one and a half billion beings. 
The position of these people in civilization indicates the de- 
gree to which they have arrived in availing themselves 
through institutions of the conditions resulting from the ac- 
tivities of air, vapor, and soil, all of which, according to 
Arrhenius, the Swedish savant, arise from solar radiation. 

In making this outline no claim is made for originality, either as to 
content, theory, or outline. The aim has been to put into the hands of 
the teachers of the subject the leading principles of physiography. 
There is probably included more than any teacher could use, with at- 
tention to detail, in the time suggested, but it is believed that the work 
may be well covered in the main in a half-year. 

Among text-books, one will find a number of most excellent ones. 
Davis's Physical Geography, Dryer's, Salisbury's (new), Tarr's, Hous- 
ton's, and Gilbert and Brigham's, Thornton's and Morgan's Physiog- 
raphies, material from all of which has been taken for this tentative out- 
line, are all good texts. ' As reference-books especially to be recommended 
are Mill's International Geography, Geikie's Earth Sculpture, and Salis- 
bury's Complete Physiography. 



90 High School 



Group V. 



BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 

BOTANY. One unit. 

The Function op Botanical Instruction. In common with other 
studies, botany affords training in observation and reasoning, and in 
planning the course this must be kept sight of in method and matter; 
and it is the function of an elementary course of botany also to give an 
exact knowledge of the most important facts about the nature of plants. 
The very fact that we are absolutely dependent on plants for our exist- 
ence, and that they strongly influence our lives in many ways, estab- 
lishes for botany a natural place in the list of the most important studies 
offered in the secondary schools. It should be the aim of botanical in- 
struction in these schools not to make botanists, but to disseminate knowl- 
edge of how plants are constructed, how they get their living, how they 
react to their environment in a way helpful to them, what their place in 
nature is, and how they help us and how we may help them. The story 
of plants has an esthetic and a practical side. Almost any fundamental 
fact about plants bears on both sides; it enhances our appreciation of 
plants, and helps us to deal with them more intelligently. This, in a 
word, it is the part of botanical instruction in the secondary schools to 
accomplish. 

The Method. Primarily the plants themselves are to be studied, and 
only secondarily what somebody says about them. The study is to be 
exact, detailed, and thoughtful; not hurried, cursory, and without satis- 
fying application and conclusion. The problem of supplying materials 
for a year's course is simple enough if the work is thoroughly done; but 
if the pupils are allowed to skip hurriedly from subject to subject, the 
materials for a year's course will have been gone over in a month, the 
pupils will have acquired no good in training or knowledge, and the 
teacher will complain that it is impossible to offer a year's course in the 
secondary schools. To insure the right sort of work the pupils are to 
make neat and exact drawings and intelligent notes for each subject 
worked out in the laboratory. The drawings are to be made with a hard 
drawing-pencil (6-H Koh-I-Noor is the most satisfactory), on heavy, un- 
ruled linen ledger paper. The notes, written in ink, are to face the draw- 
ings, so that drawings and notes can be compared without turning the 
page. The notes should be on separate sheets, and not on the backs of 
the drawings. Both drawings and notes are to be placed symmetrically 
on the pages. Before beginning a page of drawings, it is to be de- 
termined how many are to go on that page and where they are to be 
placed, so that when the pages are completed they will be pleasing in 
their symmetry. The drawings are to be simple outlines, done with care, 
so that they are distinct, neat, and in right proportion. When the pages 
are done — drawings and notes — they are to show intelligently and truth- 
fullywhat the pupil should learn from his subject, and they should be 
pleasing to look at. Inexact and slovenly work is an abomination, and 
worse than nothing. To let such work pass is to do the pupil an injury. 

Why require drawings when so much time is consumed in their 
making? _ Because they are the most exact and the simplest mode of ex- 
pression in the study of form and structure. Pupils who think they cannot 
draw can yet express themselves about form and stracture better in that 
way than in spoken or written language. Again, when drawings are to 



Courses of Study. 91 

Tse made, the pupil becomes a more exact observer. The notes are to tell 
what the parts of the drawings are, how the materials are prepared for 
study, and what facts of plant life — structural, physiological, or ecological 
— have been learned. They should show that the pupil has been thinking 
about his work and sees its meaning. To insure that all this be well done 
the laboratory book must be gone over by the teacher at frequent inter- 
vals, and its defects discussed with the pupil, and the necessary improve- 
ment insisted on before a passing grade is obtained. In being thus 
guided with a firm hand the pupils are apt to like their work better and 
are sure to respect it. 

Whenever possible, physiological experiments should accompany the 
laboratory work on form and structure. These may be prepared by the 
teacher, or they may be assigned to groups of pupils for demonstration 
before the entire class. Directions for such experiments will be found in 
some of the books cited below. Form and structure dissociated from 
physiological function or adaptation to the outer world are the mere 
husks of botany, and as soon as learned they are to be followed by an 
inquiry into their reason for being. Studied in this way, botany is a sub- 
ject of intense interest to any one who wants to know what and how God 
hath wrought. Happily physiological experimentation is within the pos- 
sibilities of any school, for the necessary apparatus is simple and can be 
arranged by teacher or pupils. 

Field excursions are a good thing. The teacher should take out not 
more than eight or ten pupils at a time. He should go over the ground 
beforehand and become familiar with the problems that can be worked 
out in the locality to be visited. In the laboratory, form, structure and 
function are learned to best advantage, and in the field, adaptation to the 
outer world, and distribution. Therefore field-work becomes necessary to 
a properly rounded course. But it should be genuine and definite work, 
and not merely a pleasure excursion. To insure successful field-work the 
teacher must be familiar with the ground to be traversed, must have put 
definite problems before the pupils, with a plan for their execution, and 
must have only a small group of pupils to supervise. 

The time devoted to botany, including laboratory work, recitations, and 
discussions, but not preparation for recitations, should be not less than 
five hours per week. Where the periods are less than one hour, as in 
most instances, the i)upils should be required to complete the time at other 
hours. This is justifiable, since the preparation for recitations does not 
require as much time as other studies, two recitations per week being all 
that would be necessary. 

Equipment. The first requisite is a well-prepared and enthusiastic 
teacher. When a teacher with little or no preparation is made to teach 
botany as a side issue it is an injustice to the teacher, the pupils, and the 
subject. It were far better not to offer the subject at all under such con- 
ditions. It may be stated as a general rule that to be well prepared the 
teacher should have worked through the equivalent of the botany courses 
I to V, inclusive, in the University catalogue for 1906-'07, namely, courses 
in elementary general morphology, plant histology, cryptogamic botany, 
experimental plant physiology, and systematic botany. With such prep- 
aration, the right sort of a teacher is bound to make a success of his 
course, no matter how poor the laboratory equipment may be. But a 
good laboratory equipment is a great help, and so inexpensive that no 
school need be without it. There should be flat-topped tables, about thirty 
inches high, affording elbow room for each pupil, placed before windows, 
so as to get plenty of light. Each pupil is to have a good magnifier 
mounted on a block, so as to leave both hands free for the use of dissect- 
ing needles. The doublet magnifiers of three- fourths-inch focus manufac- 
tured by Bausch & Lomb, Rochester, N. Y., or by the Spencer Lens Com- 
pany, Buffalo, N. Y., are satisfactory. The blocks may be made as de- 
scribed in Stevens's Introduction to Botany, page 371. The Barnes dis- 
secting microscopes, made by Bausch & Lomb, and listed at $2.50, but 
subject to discount, will answer every purpose. Each pupil is to have two 



92 High School 

dissecting needles (easily made by thrusting strong needles into soft 
wood handles), and a sharp pocket-knife. This completes the apparatus 
needed by each pupil. 

The laboratory should have at least one compound microscope for the 
demonstration of minute anatomy. More of these, if it can be afforded, 
would be highly desirable. The Bausch & Lomb BB4 special, and the 
Spencer No. 50 E, compound-microscope outfits, sold to schools at ap- 
proximately thirty-five dollars, fill all requirements. There are cheaper 
outfits supplied by these companies and other dealers. Even the cheapest 
outfits of the Bausch & Lomb and Spencer companies, catalogued as A 1 
and 80 A, respectively, costing schools approximately ten dollars, would 
prove very useful. The laboratory should own a Spencer table micro- 
tome for hand-sectioning and a sectioning razor, together costing schools 
ten dollars. Information about the necessary stains, reagents, etc., will 
be found in some of the books cited below. If the school can afford it, 
the laijoratory could be more completely equipped as advised in Ganong's 
Teaching Botanist, mentioned in the book-list below. 

In carrying out a course logical in sequence, such as that outlined be- 
low, some facilities for preparing materials must be provided. First of 
all, there should be a room, or part of a room, kept warm enough for 
germinating seeds successfully, provided with rough boxes filled with 
white pine sawdust for seed-beds, and jars holding water in which 
branches of woody plants can be forced into leaf and blossom when needed. 
Of course, seeds could be germinated in the garden in the summer, and 
the seedlings in different stages of germination could be preserved in 
two per cent, formalin. An abundance covild be prepared in this way and 
kept for use in case the plantings indoors should fail. Fresh materials 
are always best and most agreeable to work with. Some schools use 
successfully the basement furnace- room for this purpose, and any base- 
ment room will do that can be kept warm enough. Then there should 
be a cupboard in which seeds and fruits gathered during the summer 
to illustrate dissemination can be stored in boxes away from mice, 
and in which Mason jars containing two per cent, formalin (one part of 
commercial formalin to twenty parts of water), or equal parts of alcohol, 
glycerin and water, for preserving flowers and parts of plants for sec- 
tioning, can be kept handy and safe from breakage. A general might as 
well attempt a campaign without ammunition as a teacher a course in 
botany without having planned to supply the necessary materials for 
study in abundance, at the right time, and in suitable condition. Direc- 
tions for providing materials will be found in detail in Ganong's Teaching 
Botanist and Stevens's Introduction to Botany. 

The Course. In planning the course two questions chiefly must be 
considered: What subjects will give the best enlightenment about plants 
in the brief time of an elementary course? And what materials is it 
practicable for the secondary schools to provide for laboratory study in 
abundance throughout the school year? Happily these are not conflict- 
ing problems. Their solution is found in the following sequence of sub- 
jects : 

1. Seeds and Seedlings. Study Lima bean, castor-bean, and Indian 
corn, dry, soaked, and in different stages of germination. A seed is a 
plant in its simplest terms, and affords a logical beginning. The pupil 
is to learn what a seed is, what its purpose is, what its different parts are 
for, and how they perform their functions during the resting period of 
the seed and during germination. 

In the food stored in seeds he learns what sorts of materials consti- 
tute the real food of plants. In watching what becomes of this food 
during germination he learns about digestion and the assimilation of 
food into new plant substances. By simple experiments with germina- 
ting seeds he learns the conditions necessary to growth, and about res- 
piration. In watching the parts of the seedling find their wonted direc- 
tions of growth, no matter in what position the seed lies, and with simple 
experiments to bring out further information, he learns that plants are 



Courses of Study. 93 

sensible to outer influences, and respond in a way to accomplish for them- 
selves the most good. By comparing the different types of seeds and 
their variations of habit in germination he learns how plants of different 
kinds work out the problems of their existence in ways dissimilar in de- 
tail but alike in general result. With this much accomplished the pupil 
has made a good beginning in method, knowledge, and awakened interest. 

2. Roots. Study the definite order of outgrowth of lateral roots from 
the main root of seedlings, and the indefinite order of succeeding root- 
lets. Study root-hairs on seedlings grown on moist blotting-paper or in 
any suitable moist chamber, or grown in fine soil in a bottle, inclined so 
the roots will grow along the side of the bottle where they will be in 
plain sight. Demonstrate with a compound microscope the cellular struc- 
ture of roots in cross and longitudinal sections, calling particular at- 
tention to the tracheal tubes through which the water rises in the plant. 
Demonstrate the rise of water by osmosis in an artificial apparatus. 
Demonstrate the attraction of roots by moisture. The pupil is to learn 
the function of roots in fixation, absorption, and conduction; the nature 
of root-hairs, and how admirably they are adapted to fit into the small 
interstices of the soil and put themselves in close contact with its finest 
particles, so as to absorb the films of water about them and the minerals 
in solution. He is to learn here what the plasmatic membrane is and 
how it keeps the important substances of the cell-sap from becoming 
lost into the soil while permitting the entrance of water and dissolved 
substances. He is to study the formation of adventitious roots in cut- 
tings, and their value in the propagation of plants. He is to learn about 
roots used for storage, the roots of parasites, as in dodder, and the roots 
of air plants. He is to learn about the nature of the soil and what need- 
ful materials plants take from it, and the great extent and depth which 
some roots have. 

3. Buds and Stems. Study young branches, with buds in their winter 
condition, of horse-chestnut, cottonwood, and lilac. Horse-chestnut is 
particularly fine; but if it cannot be obtained, hickory may take its 
place. Study these buds in various stages of unfolding, having forced 
their growth in jars of water in a warm room. Study leaves in embryo 
in the bud, and note their behavior as they grow to maturity, and try 
to find good reasons for everything observed. Study position of leaves 
on the stem, and their relation to lateral buds, and the age of the stem 
on which they are found. Demonstrate the cellular anatomy of stems 
in cross and longitudinal sections. Learn the functions of the different 
zones of tissues in bark and wood. Learn the nature of a ring of growth 
and the purpose of its two zones of early and late growth. Examine the 
cellular structure of a stem of a monocotyledonous plant, such as corn. 
Study experiments to show the rise of water through the wood and the 
circulation of elaborated food through the inner bark. Study the use 
of buds and cuttings in plant propagation. Proceeding yi this order, 
i;he pupil learns the nature of a shoot (stem and leaves) in its embryonic 
condition in the bud, and how the favorable conditions of spring are 
quickly used to advantage by having the parts which are to grow forth 
already formed in a miniature the previous season. He learns the ad- 
mirable plan of packing these parts away within the small compass of a 
bud, and protecting them by means of scales, hairs, resinous substances, 
etc. He learns that there is a double highway for the conduction of 
materials in plants, and he should think this over and find the wisdom 
in it. The "ring of growth" is no longer a mere phrase, but answers a 
physiological necessity. He learns that the qualities of a plant may 
reside in every small part of it, so that a single bud can transmit faith- 
fully all that a plant is, and so be one of the most important means of 
propagation; and he should see how the habits and mode of life of plants 
demand this. By a comparison of the cellular anatomy of dicotyledonous 
and monocotyledonous stems he learns how plants have solved the prob- 
lem of increase in diameter and provision for strength and the transpor- 
tation of materials after two distinct plans; to best advantage, however. 



94 High School 

evidently in the dicotyledonous plan, since a vastly greater variety of 
such plants have succeeded as trees. 

4. Leaves. Study leaves of different shapes and sizes, and, wherever 
possible, see how form, size, angular divergence and vertical distances 
apart are correlated with the size and habit of the plant and the place 
in which it grows. Study the positions which leaves take with reference 
to the incident light, including such a variety of positions as shown by 
the elm, maple, cottonwood, Solomon's seal, grasses, and compass plants. 
Determine whether these different positions are equally advantageous, 
and whether there is not an ideal position that would serve best in all 
cases. Determine by experiment what light has to do with the directions 
which leaves assume. Study the cellular anatomy of a leaf; the epider- 
mis with its stomata and its imperviousness to water; the palisade and 
spongy parenchyma with their chloroplasts, the intercellular spaces, and 
the vascular bundles of veins. Compare the starch content of leaves that 
have been kept in the dark with that of those which have been kept in 
the light. Study the starch content of leaves that have been kept in the 
light in an atmosphere devoid of carbon dioxid, and of leaves kept in the 
light with stomata artificially closed. Confine leaves under glass jars, 
and study the effect on the oxygen and carbon-dioxid content of the jars 
when kept in the light, and again in the dark. Demonstrate the tran- 
spiration of water by the leaves. Compare leaves of ordinary land 
plants, desert plants, and water plants, and determine the reasons for 
their chief differences. The pupil learns that the leaf is the part of the 
plant which has the manufacture of the plant's food as its chief func- 
tion. He learns how carbon dioxid is used in this process, and the fact 
that the sunlight supplies the necessary energy; he learns that leaves 
breathe (it is not implied that the other parts of plants do not breathe, 
for they do), and that the water absorbed by the roots is given off by 
them. He understands, when he compares the cellular anatomy with the 
particular function of each part, the wonderful structural adaptation to 
the energy and materials to be used and the work to be done. He learns 
that leaves are able to perceive the direction of the source of light and 
to respond to it in a useful way. In studying the different kinds of leaves 
he perceives the fact of great variability, one of the most important facts 
in nature. In comparing the leaves of ordinary land plants, desert 
plants, and water plants, he learns of the power of plants to modify the 
forms and character of their members in a way that, is directly adaptive 
to their environment, another of the most important facts in nature. 

5. Growth and Movement. With a compound microscope demonstrate 
the embryonic condition of the cells at the apex of an onion root, and 
show how these become changed into permanent tissues of the bark and 
wood farther back in the older portions of the root. Learn the processes 
of nuclear and cell division and the evident significance of the great care 
taken. Demonstrate regions of continued growth in dicotyledonous plants 
and grasses. Demonstrate the effect of different intensities of light on 
growth. Determine the relation of the cambium ring to the additions to 
wood and bark. Study under different conditions the behavior of the 
leaves of sensitive-plant seedlings grown under bell jars ventilated at the 
bottom. Study the behavior of twining plants and sensitive tendrils. 
Read about other cases of sensitiveness in plants. It will be noted that 
most of this work consists of demonstrations before the entire class. 
While the subject of growth and movement as here outlined does not con- 
sume much time, it is yet one of the most important in plant study. 
The pupil is introduced to the wonderful facts of cell multiplication, and 
differentiation from a common origin into various forms to meet dif- 
ferent functions. He will find it interesting and instructive to speculate 
why plants continue to increase in size just where they do and not other- 
wheres. He has learned more about the sensitiveness of plants to the 
outer world and their ability to respond to their perceptions in a useful 
way. He is now prepared to see that plants are endowed with something 
little short of intelligence. 



Courses of Study. 95 

6. Modified Parts. Study roots, steins, and leaves that have been 
modified so as to perform other than their usual functions; thus, the 
thorns of wild crab, hedge, and honey-locust; sweet and Irish potatoes; 
the onion; the tendrils of wild smilax and garden pea; all of the vege- 
tative parts of greenhouse smilax and garden asparagus. Here the pupil 
learns more about the plasticity of plants in molding the forms of their 
members to meet specific requirements, and the capacity of plants to vary 
for known or unknown reasons, and he is in a position to understand 
better how the great diversity of plant forms has come about. In apply- 
ing the lines of evidence which he must follow in determining whether 
unusual forms are roots, stems, leaves, or something else, he is getting 
good training in careful observation and logical conclusion. 

The work thus far outlined, done with the care suggested under 
"Method," begun at the opening of school in the fall, will not be coiri- 
pleted long before the flowers of early spring appear. We are now ready 
to take up the study of flowers, and the gap can be supplied with flowers 
that hold their form well in formalin, such as the yucca, asclepias, 
trumpet-creeper, and Compositse of the sunflower sorts. It will be noted 
that the material needed for the course up to this point is such as can 
be provided right along through the winter with the most ordinary facili- 
ties. 

7. Flowers. Study first flowers of simple construction, such as the 
yucca, dog's-tooth violet, anemone, and shepherd's-purse. Then select 
flowers of more complex construction, which have been adapted to protect 
pollen and nectar and to assist in cross-pollination, such as asclepias, 
larkspur, iris, and violet. Then study several species of a genus, several 
genera of a family, and typical species of closely allied families, to bring 
out the evidences of relationship and the grounds for classification. The 
object is not to work over as many flowers as possible, but to select a few 
with a definite purpose in each case. The teacher should see that the 
leading questions properly pertaining to each flower selected have been 
asked and answered. The teacher will find many useful suggestions in 
Miiller's Fertilization of Flowers and Kerner and Oliver's Natural His- 
tory of Plants. With diagrams make clear the process of fertilization 
and the results. Discuss the benefits of cross-fertilization, and in this 
light interpret the frequent elaborate devices to secure it. Besides the 
drawings of dissections, have the pupils make cross and longitudinal 
diagrams of the flowers to bring out the main structural facts clearly. 
Go over the evidence about the evolution of a flower from its simpler 
representatives in the lower plants. The pupil learns what a flower is 
and how its different parts are adapted to their functions. He learns 
the wonderful relation of insects to flowers, and how many flowers have 
adapted themselves to this relationship by modiflcations of form, etc. And 
so the evidence is accumulating for him that plants are not cast in rigid 
molds, but are responsive and adaptive to various influences of the outer 
world. He learns that there is a real blood relationship between plants 
diflfering in general appfearance, and that, although there is no written 
book of lineage for them, the evidence of relationship is by no means ob- 
scure and furnishes the ground for classification. He learns the essen- 
tial facts about sex, the same in plants as in animals, and the use of sex 
differences in bringing about a more vigorous offspring, and as a means 
of variation. With this knowledge he has a foundation for an understand- 
mg of scientific plant-breeding, which is now being perfected in the ex- 
perimental stations and is proving of untold advantage to agriculture. 
Thus his appreciation of flowers is definite and increased many fold. 

8. Distribution of Fruits and Seeds. Study special devices for scat- 
tering seeds, by means of the elastic action of carpels and ways of that 
kind, or by outgrowths from the seeds themselves in the form of hooks 
hairs, or wings. Study fruits that have devices to aid distribution, such 
as fleshy and nut-like fruits, and fruits with hooks, parachutes, and 
wings, etc. Determine in each case what part of the seed or fruit fur- 



96 High School 

nishes the device. For this work material must have been put up in 
formalin or dry in boxes the previous summer or fall. The pupil learns 
the efforts which plants have themselves made to secure dissemination. 
He learns that they have been able to attain the same end in a great va- 
riety of ways; that they have modified various of their own parts, and 
pressed into service different kinds of outside agents. The evidence of 
the completeness of the adjustment of plants to their environment has 
heen accumulating before the pupil throughout the entire course. 

9. Algse, Fungi, Mosses, Ferns. The work in these subjects cannot 
be so thorough as in the previous ones, because the time will not permit, 
and the equipment in compound microscopes will in all probability not be 
sufficient. But the pupil must not leave the subject of botany without 
some exact knowledge of these lower plants. Study with the naked eye, 
simple magnifiers, and as much as possible with a compound microscope, 
alg£e growing in ponds, watering- troughs, etc., and on the north sides of 
trees; bread mold, wheat rust, and toadstools; moses bearing capsules; 
ferns with sporangia, and their prothallia. Even with this cursory study 
a great deal will be cleared up that before was obscure to the pupil. In 
the study of the algae the pupil learns by what simple forms an inde- 
pendent existence can be carried on, and he sees in them the possibly 
very early progenitors of the highest forms of the present day. He 
learns about the simplest mode of multiplication by the division of a 
parent cell, and possibly his material will show the formation of spores. 
In the fungi he learns about the peculiar habit of parasitism or sapro- 
phytism. He sees in them the apparently degenerate descendants of the 
algae that have lost their chlorophyll, and consequently their independ- 
ence, or it may be that they gave up their independence and lost their 
chlorophyll as a penalty. He learns that these forms of life cause the 
destruction of organic substances and disease in living organisms. In 
the study of fungi the bacteria and their activities should also be con- 
sidered. In the study of mosses he sees the first efforts at the differentia- 
tion of the plant body into roots and leaf-bearing stems, but with true 
roots not yet evolved. He sees the very simplest forms of leaves, which 
are, nevertheless, efficient food-makers. In the ferns the pupil finds a 
more successful attempt to differentiate the plant body into roots, stems, 
and leaves. He sees a clear case of the wonderful habit of alternation 
of generations, which is present but obscure in the mosses, and present 
and still more obscure in the higher plants. The teacher will use his own 
judgment about attempting to relate the story of alternation of genera- 
tions and its apparent significance in the study of evolution. It is one of 
the wonderful things about plant life, and of great use as evidence of re- 
lationship between the lower and higher forms. But it is an unusually 
difficult subject, and unless thoroughly exploited is apt to lead only to 
confusion. Still, it would seem too bad to pass so close to a wonderful 
fact and leave it untouched. 

This will end the year's course. It will be seen that it is full of hard 
work and requires a wide-awake mind. But we expect this of any study 
that is worth while. Having gone through it thoroughly the pupil's hori- 
zon will have been immensely broadened and his interest in the world 
about him enhanced. 

There seems to be the absurdity abroad, even among some school- 
teachers, that the study of botany in the high schools should be made 
easy — a sort of gentle wafting of the pupils on beds of roses into a more 
or less sentimental appreciation of form, color, and fragrance, and the 
like. This seems to be a product of the fairy-tale sort of nature study 
which gives a cheap representation of what, as it stands imcolored, is 
already marvelous beyond conception. 

It is this fictitious sort of botany, without any care for the exact truth, 
and without purpose or logical sequence in its methods, and unexacting 
of those who study it, that has brought the real science into disrepute 
among serious people, and kept it from taking its rightful place by the 



Courses of Study. 97 

side of language and mathematics as affording the right sort of training 
and a worthy body of knowledge. 

10. Helpful Books. There is one book that stands preeminent in its 
helpfulness to teachers: The Teaching Botanist, by William F. Ganong, 
published by The Macmillan Company, New York. In it a sufficiently 
complete list of botanical books will be found. A more recent and very 
useful book to the teacher is Lloyd and Bigelow's book on the teaching 
of biology, in which both botany and zoology are treated. Some other 
books should be mentioned here. Miiller's Fertilization of Flowers, The 
Macmillan Company, is an indispensable help in the study of flowers. 
Kerner and Oliver's Natural History of Plants, Henry Holt & Co., New 
York, is replete with information about all phases of plant study; this 
should be in every school library. Geddes's Chapters in Modern Botany, 
Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, is a series of very interesting essays 
in the modern scientific spirit. Barnes's Plant Life, Henry Holt & Co., 
is a clear and logical presentation of the subject from the standpoint of 
the relation of form to function. A Text-book of Botany, by Strasburger 
Noll, Schenck, and Schimper, is written by specialists in its different 
parts, and is one of the most satisfactory texts yet published. This is 
issued by The Macmillan Company. Ganong's Plant Physiology, Henry 
Holt & Co., contains explicit directions for carrying out the experiments 
demanded in the above course. Stevens's Introduction to Botany, D. C. 
Heath & Co., Boston, contains detailed directions for carrying on such a 
course as is outlined above. Osterhout's Experiments with Plants, The 
Macmillan Company, is replete with ingenious experiments that can be 
carried on in any school. The series of Bergen's Botanys, issued by Ginn 
& Co., stands in the front rank of botanical texts. Peirce's Plant Physi- 
ology, Henry Holt & Co., contains a clear and up-to-date summary of our 
knowledge of physiological processes. Green's Vegetable Physiology, and 
Stevens's Plant Histology, published by P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Phila- 
delphia, will be found useful additions to the school library. Carlton's 
Nature and Development of Plants, Henry Holt & Co., is replete with 
information needful to the teacher. Chamberlain's Methods in Plant 
Histology, issued by the University of Chicago Press, is an excellent 
guide to histological technique. Professor Coulter's books. Plant Rela- 
tions and Plant Structures, beautifully written and illustrated, issued by 
D. Appleton & Co., New York, should be in every school library. 

ZOOLOGY. One unit. 

The growing importance of the biological sciences in both the high- 
school and college curricula makes necessary, so far as possible, the 
establishment of some standard which shall serve to coordinate the work 
of the different schools of the state. In addition to thus outlining a 
course of study, there will be included suggestions regarding laboratories, 
apparatus, and materials, which, it is hoped, may be of service. This is 
done because numerous letters received from the teachers of zoology 
throughout the state indicate the desire for assistance of this sort. It is 
the wish of the department of zoology at the University to be of service 
to the other public schools of the state in carrying on the work with which 
it is concerned, and it is hoped that the teachers of the secondary schools 
will come into as close touch as possible with the department and its in- 
structors. 

Purpose of the Course.- There is hardly any necessity for saying 
that, in making the suggestions regarding the high-school course of 
zoology that follow, the main thought kept in mind has been, not what 
would be best for the student who wishes to continue the subject at the 
University, but what will give him the best sort of training in that 
province of learning which it is the peculiar privilege of the observa- 
tional sciences to occupy. And in this connection it may here be ob- 
served that the best teachers of these sciences do not regard the ele- 

-7 



98 High School 

mentary courses as primarily designed for affording information, but 
rather as a means for training the mind to observe facts and to arrange 
and present these in a clear and logical manner. 

Character and Equipment of the Laboratory. Obviously there can 
be no training of this sort by means of mere text-book work, and so it 
may be said in the beginning that the prime necessity of a course is a 
direct study of the animals themselves. This necessitates a laboratory 
and suitable equipment. Regarding the room, it may be said that it is 
almost necessary to have it arranged so that it may be used for the one 
purpose alone, and to have it provided with tables rather than with desks. 
These need not be expensive, since the common kitchen table serves very 
well. Numerous windows are an advantage, and they are best situated 
on the north side. So far as general laboratory equipment is concerned 
it may be very simple. There will need to be receptacles for holding the 
specimens, and for this purpose stone jars of four or five gallons capacity 
serve excellently. Then some aquaria for live material are needed. 
These may be purchased at reasonable prices, but in their absence candy 
jars, fruit jars, battery jars, or any glass vessel of sufficient size will do. 
Ordinarily the greatest difficulty is encountered in the equipment of the 
individual student. The following account of such apparatus as the 
student finds necessary for his work was published in the Journal of Ap- 
plied Microscopy, and indicates what it has been found possible to get 
along with. 

Apparatus for the Individual Student. The question of a suitable 
equipment for large laboratory classes in elementary zoology is often a 
most serious and perplexing one. Not only is it difficult to find the pieces 
of apparatus already made, but even when purchasable the attendant ex- 
pense makes them unavailable in many cases where large numbers are 
required. In nearly every laboratory these difficulties have been met and 
solved more or less satisfactorily, usually by designing such apparatus 
as can be made in local shops. 

Such a set for the individual student, evolved in actual practical work, 
is described here. Aside from dissecting-pans and instruments, it con- 
sists of two pieces — one an easel, the other a standard for the support of 
lenses, etc. The easel is merely a piece of soft pine or poplar board 
5x6x1 inches, supported behind by a piece of bent wire attached by 
small staples. Crude and simple as this is, it insures better work for the 
student at a much less degree of personal discomfort than is otherwise 
possible. Since the style of drawing usually required of beginners is that 
known as orthographic projection, it becomes necessary to view the speci- 
men from directly above each part drawn. If no support is provided, the 
student either lays the specimen upon the table and endeavors to look 
down upon it, or he props it against books or other objects, so that it 
may be observed more easily. In either case the process is time-consum- 
ing and troublesome. 

The specimen, a crawfish for example, is pinned to the board against a 
suitable shade of paper for a background, the appendages are arranged 
and secured to the board, which is then erected at such an angle that the 
line of sight falls upon it normal to the surface. In this position the 
animal is well lighted, is easily measured, and the tendency to introduce 
perspective in the drawing is minimized. When a lateral view is desired, 
the specimen is pinned to the top of the board near one side, the abdomen 
is flexed in a natural manner and fastened to the side, the appendages 
are brought down and secured, and the easel adjusted at the upper angle. 
It is not difficult to draw the animal when thus mounted, for a proper 
view is easily obtainable, and the edges of the board serve as guide-lines 
from which to measure. 

The lens-support is made by taking a piece of brass rod three-six- 
teenths of an inch in diameter by ten inches in length, rounding one end 
with a file, and splitting the other in the center for an inch with a saw. 
Two holes are drilled through this end at right angles to the split, and 



Courses of Study. 99 

then, after heating, the halves are bent out until the flat surfaces lie in 
one plane. By means of rivets passing through the small holes the rod is 
secured in the middle of a tin ointment-box lid about three inches in 
diameter, which, in turn, is filled with melted lead. The standard thus 
produced is very firm and stable and occupies little room. 

The lens-holder attaching the magnifier to the standard is made by 
taking suitable brass or galvanized-iron wire and forming on one end a 
loop of proper size to hold the lens, and on the other a close spiral of 
about four or five turns whose inner diameter is very slightly greater than 
that of the brass rod in the standard. Two of these are conveniently 
formed at one time by winding a spiral of eight or ten turns in the middle 
of a piece of wire twice the length of the desired support. This is then 
cut through the center and rings formed at the free ends for holding the 
lenses. It is advantageous to bend the support downwards, so that the 
lens may be lowered over the edge of the dissecting-pan. The lens thus 
supported may be swung around over a large specimen, and is conven- 
iently focused by sliding the spiral up and down the brass rod. 

This apparatus, by the addition of another lens-support, serves an ex- 
cellent purpose in the examination of small parts and dissections, and 
makes the use of the microscope much easier for the beginner. In making 
use of the apparatus for this purpose, it is arranged as follows: Upon 
the ring of the lower support is placed a piece of non-drying modeling- 
clay (to be purchased of dealers in art and laboratory supplies) . If the 
parts are to be examined dry, they are pressed down into the clay and 
arranged as desired; if they are to be immersed in water, a depression of 
suitable dimensions is made, and in the bottom the parts are secured. 
Water is now poured into the improvised pan and the specimen is ready 
for observation. Should specimens transfixed by pins be used, they are 
easily fixed and oriented in the clay. The holder is elevated to a con- 
venient height above the table, the lens is focused, and the observer may 
then examine the specimen with one eye and, without moving the head, 
make the drawing. 

The modeling-clay previously mentioned is useful in m.any ways. 
When irregular objects are to be held in position, either upon the table, 
easel, or wire support, they may quickly and easily be secured by a 
piece of the clay. Small fragile structures, such as the mouth-parts of 
insects, are readily mounted in any position by pressing them into the 
surface of the clay. Numerous other uses suggest themseLves in practical 
work, which need not be mentioned here. 

Aside from the two pieces of apparatus described, nothing more is 
required for class use except dissecting-pans and instruments. The 
former should be of different sizes, and may be made by pouring melted 
paraffin into suitable tin pans. It is usually desirable to have projec- 
tions of some sort in the bottom to anchor the paraffin. For many pur- 
poses a black background is desirable, and this is obtained by mixing 
lampblack with the melted paraffin. Small pans may be made by using 
the bodies of the ointment boxes, the tops of which were utilized as the 
bases of the lens-standards. Small pasteboard boxes thoroughly soaked 
in melted paraffin are light and convenient and last well. 

Improvised dissecting instruments, except needles, are not to be rec- 
ommended. Excellent ones, perfectly adapted to their purposes, may be 
purchased at reasonable prices, and are always to be preferred. 

Outline of the Course. Every teacher has his own ways of working, 
and can secure the best results by following out the methods that seem 
to him best adapted to the time and place. Nevertheless, there are cer- 
tain general principles that should govern the presentation of any sub- 
ject, and in order to indicate the nature of these to such teachers as may 
be in doubt concerning the extent and character of the work involved in 
an elementary course in zoology, some suggestions may be given. In 
the first place, it must always be held clearly in mind that zoology is 
the study of animals and not of text-books. Evidently enough, then, the 
course must be so arranged as to give the student the largest personal 



100 High School 

acquaintance with animal forms, and since it is obviously impossible to 
bring before him anything but a small representation of the animal 
kingdom, such a selection must be made as will give a place to all the 
important groups. In this matter of selecting the so-called "type speci- 
mens" there is a good deal of latitude, which may be improved by util- 
izing common indigenous forms, but the temptation to take what is at 
hand must not be allowed to exclude from consideration representatives 
of important groups that arejiot so immediately available. 

In making this selection of types, then, the first consideration is rep- 
resentativeness. The form chosen for study must be one that exhibits 
clearly the peculiarities of structure which mark the group of which it 
is a member. In general only the salient morphological points can be 
brought out, but in one or two forms that are particularly favorable a 
more detailed study can be undertaken with profit. By this means the 
relative values of structural characters as a means for determining the 
relationships of animals can be demonstrated practically. The number of 
groups that can be studied will depend to some extent upon the availa- 
bility of the material and upon the equipment with which it is to be 
so studied. In general, representatives of the following branches will 
be found adapted to the ordinary high school: Arthropoda, Mollusca, 
Echinodermata, Annulata, Coelenterata, and Vertebrata. Because of 
their numerical importance and practical bearing upon human affairs 
the arthropods may demand a more extended consideration than the other 
types. 

To meet the requirements of the course there may be selected the fol- 
lowing animals for the laboratory work: Crawfish; grasshopper; clam; 
starfish; earthworm; jelly-fish; frog. Of this list, all except the starfish 
and jelly-fish may be found in practically any part of Kansas, so that, 
as a matter of convenience, they leave nothing to be desired. These 
forms represent their branches perhaps as well as individual species 
may, and are of convenient size to work with. 

The order in which these forms are taken up is of no little importance, 
but it is scarcely possible to make a rule that is of general applicability. 
A strictly logical method of procedure would, of course, be to commence 
with the lowest forms and study the higher in the order of their com- 
plexity, or conversely, to note the highest development of morphological 
characters, and then to trace them back in the simpler animals. To most 
workers there have appeared practical objections to both plans. In the 
first instance the forms are small and require the use of a compound 
microscope, which places the beginning student at the double disad- 
vantage of working with strange objects under quite unfamiliar condi- 
tions of observation. There is the further difliculty that an instalment 
of compound microscopes is necessary, and this is often beyond the re- 
sources of the high school. The main objection to the second plan is 
that it introduces the student to a highly complex development of the 
various systems, which not only renders necessary very skilful dissecting 
work, but occupies a disproportionate amount of time for attaining what 
is desired of the beginner. A compromise plan which is thought by many 
to obviate to a considerable extent the difficulties attaching to the others 
is to start the student out on a form of convenient size in which the 
various systems are well enough developed to show in a simple way the 
main features characterizing them. In this manner the principal struc- 
tural features and relations of organism may be brought out in a some- 
what diagrammatic way, and .then by working down to the simpler forms 
the earlier stages of development may be seen and understood. Finally, 
with all this preparation, the vertebrate type may be studied and its 
complex structures appreciated. It is with this idea in mind that the 
arrangement of types previously suggested has been made. 

The mere study of these few specimens, however, is not sufficient — 
such a course would be almost as bad as the use of a text-book alone. 
Two things are sought from the personal study of the type specimens 
by the student. In the first place, it trains his powers of observation 



Courses of Study. ~ 101 

and comparison, and gives the instructor an opportunity to determine 
where the weak points in his preparation and work are. The other end 
sought is to give the student a concrete detailed image of one animal 
out of a representative group. With a definite conception thus established 
regarding the type specimen, it is possible to take up other members of 
the group and bring out the structural features of the various subgroups. 
As an example of how this part of the work may be carried on, the case 
of the grasshopper, the crawfish and the other arthropods may be in- 
stanced. If the crawfish has first been studied as the representative of 
the lowest arthropod class, then the grasshopper, representing the high- 
est class, after having carefully been worked out as an independent or- 
ganism, may be compared system by system with the crawfish. This will 
develop the main resemblances and differences in the arthropods, so that 
the student will know what characters differentiate this branch from 
others. Specimens of the Arachnida and Myriapoda may then be ex- 
amined and the further class distinctions noted. It is not necessary for 
the student to dissect and draw all the forms; it is, in fact, much better 
for the instructor to take a few students aside and confront them with 
the specimens, asking them to tell wherein they resemble the forms al- 
ready studied. If they have previously listened to a lecture upon the 
whole arthropod branch, or have read up in a good text upon the subject, 
they may be asked to classify the specimens into classes. When the 
main characters of the branch have thus been worked out by the student, 
attention may be turned to minor structural characters which serve to 
differentiate the subgroups. 

To indicate how this part of the work may be presented, a series of 
comparisons based upon the grasshopper may be suggested. The grass- 
hopper, from the order Orthoptera, may be compared with specimens of 
other insect orders, under the immediate supervision of the teacher, if 
possible, and these group characters brought out. When the students 
have acquired the ability to distinguish the insect orders, family char- 
acters in the Orthoptera may be illustrated by specimens of crickets, 
cockroaches, walking-sticks, etc. If it is thought desirable to go further, 
generic and specific characters may be pointed out in the type form 
studied. The general principle always to be followed is to proceed from 
the known ground established by a study of the type into the unfamiliar 
territory occupied by the nearly related forms. When one branch is thus 
disposed of, another is taken up in a similar manner, and after having 
been worked over is compared with the previously studied group, so as 
to establish broad relationships connecting the two. In this way the stu- 
dent is gradually led to a general conception of the animal kingdom, 
based upon his own individual experiences. 

Along with this first-hand observation and correlation work, which 
should be embodied in a well-kept note-book, there should go careful read- 
ings and recitations upon the general laws and phenomena appearing in 
animals. The life-histories of a few forms should be studied personally 
and read about by the students, and some simple physiological experi- 
ments carried out. It is a good exercise to have certain topics assigned 
for investigation and require written reports upon them. Insects offer 
good opportunities for this kind of work, and such questions as the fol- 
lowing may cause the student to make profitable direct observations upon 
the living animals: "What structures and markings upon grasshoppers 
shield them from attacks of enemies?" "Describe the methods of flight 
in four species of grasshoppers." "Observe the actions of two grass- 
hoppers when they meet — do they appear to have any means of communi- 
cation?" "Do different species of grasshoppers appear to inhabit par- 
ticular localities?" "What parasites can you find in or upon the grass- 
hopper?" 

Collection and Care of Material. In most cases it is a compara- 
tively easy matter to secure supplies of grasshoppers, crawfish, clams, 
earthworms, etc., and wherever it is possible to have the fresh material it 
will usually be best to use it. When it is not convenient to keep or to secure 



102 High School 

specimens of this character, preserved material of the proper sort will 
serve most purposes. A rule that should almost invariably be observed is 
to secure material when it is plentiful, and not wait until it is needed. 
The cheapest and most convenient preservative is a solution of formalde- 
hyde gas. This occurs in the market as a forty-per-cent. solution, called 
formalin, which is to be diluted to two per cent, or four per cent. A two- 
per-cent. solution is made by taking one part of formalin and nineteen 
parts of water; a four-per-cent. solution, by using one part of formalin 
and nine parts of water. Generally the specimens should go into the four- 
per-cent. solution for three or for days, and then be kept in the weaker 
mixture. Earthworms must be killed and preserved in alcohol. If 
running water is available, sufficient live crawfish, clams, etc., may he 
kept in aquaria, or even in its absence, by keeping aquatic plants with 
the animals they will thus secure enough oxygen. Earthworms may be 
kept in a tub of dirt, if it is moistened occasionally. Cages of screen 
wire may easily be improvised for keeping grasshoppers alive. 

Experience has taught that one of the great difficulties in the way of 
the proper teaching of Zoology in the high school is the difficulty teachers 
have in securing material. In this, as in other matters, the University is 
desirous of assisting the other schools, and will endeavor to supply ma- 
terial at cost. 

Where to Purchase Supplies. Microscopes and laboratory appa- 
ratus: Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, Rochester, N. Y.; Spencer 
Lens Company, Buffalo, N. Y. Marine specimens: Supply Department, 
Woods Hole Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.; Henry M. 
Stevens, Carlisle, Iowa. Glassware, etc.: Whitall, Tatum & Co., Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

PHYSIOLOGY. One-half unit. 

Review elementary physiology and study chemical composition of the 
body, the histology of the tissue, physiological processes of digestion, 
absorption, respiration, metabolism, secretion, excretion, and nerve con- 
trol of the organs of the body. 

Use tables, outlines and diagrams freely. Give special attention to 
the spelling of the terms used in the subject. 

Illustrate anatomy by dissection of frogs, rabbits or cats, or by speci- 
mens from the butcher-shop. 

Study chemical composition of the tissues as far as possible by labo- 
ratory experiments. Show the amount of mineral and animal matter in 
bone, the presence of proteid, sugar, water and minerals in muscle. Show 
chemical and physical properties of alcohol, process of fermentation and 
distillation. A compound microscope is needed in histology and a skeleton 
and manikin are valuable aids in anatomy. 

The following texts are suggested as covering the work of this course: 

The Human Body, Briefer Course, Martin; Henry Holt & Co. 

Physiology by the Laboratory Method, Brinckley; Ainsworth & Co. 

Human Physiology, Thornton; Longmans, Green & Co. 

Practical Physiology, Blaisdell; Ginn & Co. 



Courses of Study. 103 



Group VI. 



HISTORY. 

EUROPEAN HISTORY. Three units. 

The entrance regulations of the University provide that two units of 
European history must be completed before the end of the Sophomore 
year. A unit is interpreted to mean one year of five hours a week in 
high school, or one term of five hours a week in the University. Credit 
is given only for work in English history; ancient history — i.e., history 
of Greece and Rome; or medieval and modern European history — i. e., the 
history of Europe since 475. One term's credit will be given to students 
presenting a year's work in the high school in any of these subjects. The 
department of European history offers three courses mentioned above in 
the Freshman and Sophomore years in the University, so that students 
who have not taken any or all of them during their high-school course 
have ample opportunity to do the work after entering the University. 
Students who receive credit at entrance for work done in the high school, 
however, cannot, of course, take the same work in the University for 
credit. Each of these courses, whether done in high school or University, 
must be complete in itself, and no entrance credit can be given for such 
courses done as part of the work in general history. It is expected, of 
course, that the high-school work in history will include as much outside 
reading, map-making and note-taking as possible. 

Curriculum. The American Historical Association has recommended 
that four years be given to the study of history in high schools, when- 
ever it is practicable to do so. When this can be done, the first year 
should be devoted to Greek and Roman history, with a preliminary study 
of the oriental nations; the second year, to medieval and modern Euro- 
pean history; the third, to English history; and the fourth, to American 
history. Those schools which find it desirable to give only three years to 
history are recommended to place Greek and Roman history in the second 
year, English history in the third year, and American history in the 
fourth. When two years only can be given to history, either Greek and 
Roman or English history may be chosen, in which case the third year is 
recommended. If a separate course in medieval and modern European 
history is not given, English history should be treated with constant 
reference to European history. The department of European history in 
the University of Kansas hopes that those high schools which have a 
four-year course of study will, as far as possible, arrange their work in 
history according to the above plan, which has been elaborately discussed 
in the report of the Committee of Seven. 

Text-books. Within recent years a serious effort has been made to 
prepare good text-books in history for secondary schools. The text which 
will be found most satisfactory depends largely upon the school in which 
it is to be used and the teacher who is to use it. It should not be for- 
gotten that a text which is satisfactory for the first-year class in high 
school may be unsatisfactory for the third-year class. Each teacher must 
learn by experience the text which, under given circumstances, is best. 
In selecting a text for Greek and Roman history, the teacher will do well 
to examine those of Morey, West, Wulfson, and Myers. For medieval 



104 High School 

and modern history there are also four very good texts, Robinson, Munro 
and Whitcomb, West, and Myers. Robinson and Myers begin with the 
Germanic invasion of the fifth century; Munro and Whitcomb and West 
begin with the empire of Charlemagne and devote much more space to 
the nineteenth century than to the earlier periods. There is even a 
greater number of books to choose from in English history. Coman and 
Kendall, Larned, Andrews, Wrong, Cheyney, Channing and Higginson or 
Montgomery may be recommended. All of the books mentioned are fur- 
nished with lists of topics and references which enable the student to 
supplement the text-book work with outside reading of a general or spe- 
cial nature. 

Class Recitations. The best text-book, the most fully equipped 
library, can nevertheless do but little toward insuring success in the 
teaching of history. Whatever success is achieved will depend ultimately 
upon the use which the teacher makes of the recitation hour. Aside from 
occasional written examinations, and supplementary oral or written re- 
ports, the recitation hour should mainly be devoted to developing the sub- 
ject by means of questions and answers. Simple as it may seem to ask 
questions, this method, when properly used, requires ability of a high 
order and produces results which can be achieved in no other way. It is 
indispensable that the teacher should have sufficient knowled??e of the 
subject to conduct the recitation without reference to the text-book or to 
notes of any kind. He should have clearly in mind the main topics that 
he desires to develop and the order in which he wishes to bring them up. 
Although it is necessary to ask many questions which require mere 
memorizing of the text, the teacher should always endeavor to so frame 
the questions that success in answering will depend upon the student's 
ability to see relations between events. The test of successful question- 
ing consists in the ability of the teacher to lead the student to follow a 
train of thought based upon a given knowledge of facts, which, left to 
himself, he would never have followed out. It is hardly necessary to say 
that the teacher must himself be able to perceive more than lies on the 
surface, and he should carefully avoid what are known in the courts as 
"leading questions." 

There are no rules for learning the art of successful questioning; suc- 
cess depends upon natural gifts and practical experience. Some very 
common mistakes, however, may be pointed out. Avoid questions on the 
one hand that can be answered by "yes" or "no"; on the other hand, gen- 
erally avoid such as can be answered by memorizing the words of the 
text. Questions that require thought for an answer should be carefully 
distinguished from those that require guessing. The teacher must avoid 
a manner which leaves the impression upon the student that he is being 
quizzed for the mere purpose of showing up his stupidity or the teacher's 
cleverness. So far as possible, each question should be determined by the 
preceding question and the answer which has been given to it. Questions 
should be frequently asked in such a way that the only hope of a success- 
ful answer depends upon having given close attention to the entire reci- 
tation. Questions should be short, clear, and precisely worded; the ex- 
perienced teacher knows by instinct when the student has not understood 
the question, and when he does not know the answer or seeks to gain 
time. In a word, such questions should be asked as will (a) require 
accuracy of knowledge, (6) test the ability to see relations, and (c) de- 
mand concentration of attention throughout the recitation. 

Summary. The department of European history thus desires of stu- 
dents who enter the University of Kansas that they shall at least have a 
good knowledge of the main facts of some particular period of European 
history, and, at best, a good knowledge of the main facts of the entire 
field; in either case, it desires that they shall have had, in addition, some 
practice in the use of books, and some training in perceiving fundamental 
historical relations. 



Courses of Study. 105 

greek and roman history. 

Following the report of the Committee of Seven, Greek and Roman 
history falls in the first year of the high school. It should be remem- 
bered- that the freshmen are not prepared to do the same kind of work 
as the juniors in English history. The value of Greek history particu- 
larly, and of Roman history in a less degree, for students of fourteen or 
fifteen, is that it is so rich in mythology and legend, and in the biographic 
side of history. This side of Greek and Roman history should be em- 
phasized, for it is the side to which the student will be most attracted, 
and the student who does not learn the pagan mythology before fourteen 
will probably never learn it. The constitutional and economic aspects of 
Greek and Roman history are exceedingly difficult to grasp, and should 
be touched upon only incidentally. On the other hand, if the student is 
made to dwell upon the heroic figures of the pagan world, that would" 
acquire for him a human interest and a reality which will never be lost. 
The periods of Greek history which should be emphasized for this pur- 
pose are the heroic age, the Persian wars, the period of Athenian expan- 
sion in the fifth century, the Peloponnesian war, and the Macedonian 
conquest. For Roman history, the early republic and the period of 
Mediterranean conquest will appeal to high-school freshmen more than 
the less obviouS though equally important transformation of the empire.. 
During the empire, the second century and the growth of Christianity 
in the third and fourth centuries are phases of the history of Rome that 
can be used effectively. 

MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY. 

Medieval history has a twofold value. The modern system of Euro- 
pean states finds its origin in the middle ages, and to understand one's 
own civilization we must have some knowledge of the middle ages. The 
middle ages is the period that differs most from our own time in cus- 
toms and beliefs and is better adapted than any other, therefore, to 
arouse in the student a live interest in history. The teacher should be 
on his guard against exaggerating the contrast, however, and thus 
leaving the impression that the people of the middle ages were strange, 
half -human beings; the differences in custom should be shown to arise 
from differences in conditions, not in people, and whenever possible the 
differences should be shown to be only superficial. For example, the 
student can be easily made to understand that heresy in the middle ages 
was nothing more than modern treason. Unfortunately, most of the 
text-books give but slight space to the period from 800 to 1648, g-oing more 
fully into the period from 1648 to 1870. The wise teacher will rectify 
this by supplementary work in the library for the first period, while the 
latter period can be studied mainly from the text. The main points to 
be emphasized from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century are the 
changes in governments from the feudal type to the monarchial, the 
changes in religion and the international and domestic wars growing out 
of the religious quarrel, and the colonizing activity which grew out of 
the period of discoveries. In the eighteenth century the main feature 
is the international dynastic and territorial wars and their connection 
with colonial expansion and commercial interests. From 1789 to 1870, 
the overthrow of the old monarchies and the establishment of liberal 
governments are the points of central importance. 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 

In accordance with the recommendations of the Committee of Seven, 
the department recommends that English history be given in the third 
year of the high-school course. The students will have had by this time 
one or more years' work in history, and their minds will have been pre- 
pared to grasp the broader economic, social, and political principles with 
which this course should be primarily concerned. The aim throughout 
should be to give the students a clear idea of the origin and development 



106 High School 

of those institutions, thoughts, manners and customs which form the basis 
of the modern civilization in the United States and Great Britain and 
her dependencies. While the student should have a quite definite knowl- 
edge of such persons as Alfred, William the Conqueror, Elizabeth, etc., 
the biographical side should be subordinated to the study of the people. 
His interest in these great men and women should be to determine just 
what influence they had upon the life of their time. Without dates and 
places, as has been well said, one is floating in time and space. A few 
cardinal dates, possibly a dozen, and the principal physical and geo- 
graphical features of England should be carefully learned. Much time 
is often wasted in memorizing long lists of well-nigh meaningless dates 
and proper names, and in tracing out very superficially many military 
campaigns, but some attention may well be given to methods and prin- 
ciples of warfare. The student should be led to see that the customs of 
a people are not unlike, in many respects, the habits of individuals. He 
should endeavor to learn how our ancestors lived, what they thought and 
believed, and why. Frequent comparisons should be made between the 
past and the present. Knowledge of the English classics may be profita- 
bly used, as, for instance, the Canterbury Tales. The main outlines of 
the English constitution are clear and tangible, and care must be used 
not to run into difficult technicalities or to spend valuable time in con- 
sidering merely the curious and irregular. Frequent comparisons with 
modern institutions should be employed. In the Anglo-Saxon period 
particular attention should be given to the development of local govern- 
ment and its connection with our own. In the Norman period the chief 
topics of interest are the manor, feudalism, and the growth of a strong 
central power. The fact that the manor was an economic and feudalism 
a political institution should be emphasized. A comparison between 
the French and English feudalism and a brief explanation of the reason 
for the differences may be undertaken. In the Angevin and Lancastrian 
periods special emphasis should be placed upon the rise of Parliament 
and the jury system with reference to our own jury and Congress. At- 
tention should also be given to the gilds. Much attention should be given 
to the church as an institution. The abbott and the bishop should be 
regarded not merely as great church officials, but also as great feudal 
barons. The social and intellectual service of the monasteries cannot be 
neglected. The church during the middle ages was not merely a great 
religious organization, but did much of the work now done by the state. 
The Reformation should be viewed as a political and national as well as 
a religious movement. As the Reformation was a revolt against the 
civil authority and religious control of the church of the middle ages, so 
the Renaissance should be viewed as a revolt against the learning of the 
church, by which the methods of study were changed, and the revival 
of the Roman and Greek classics. In connection with the awakening of 
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the influence of the discovpries and 
inventions should receive their due consideration. Neither the Reforma- 
tion nor the Renaissance can be understood without frequent references 
to the corresponding German and Italian movements. A brief consid- 
eration of the spirit and aims of the great Elizabethan writers will be 
found valuable. During the Tudor period, point out that the Puritan 
movement was striving to purify the church of abuses by limiting the 
powers of the state in ecclesiastical matters. The Stuart period was one of 
readjustment between church and state, and between the crown endeavor- 
ing to extend the very great powers of the Tudors and Parliament claim- 
ing the right and privilege enjoyed under the Lancastrian kings. Both 
problems were solved in the fifty years following the revolution of 1689 
by the establishment of religious toleration and formulation of the 
cabinet system with the preponderance of the house of commons. The 
chief topics of interest in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries should 
be the growth of the British empire, the industrial revolution and the 
democratism of England since 1832. The student should be led to see 
that the influence of England is no longer confined to the British Isles 



Courses of Study. 107 

nor even to the United States; that many English institutions, such as 
parliamentary and party government, trial by jury, etc., have been and 
are still being adopted, with slight modification, by other nations of the 
world. 

An excellent outline and copious bibliography, with specific references, 
may be found in "Outlines of English History," prepared by a committee 
of the New England Teachers' Association, Heath & Co., price 15 cents. 
A suggestive little pamphlet is "Outline for Review of English History," 
by Newton and Trent, American Book Company. 

SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 

Every school library should have at least one good historical atlas. 
Probably the most useful is that by Earle Dow (Holt & Co., $1.50), which 
has many maps and an index. Labberton's Historical Atlas (Silver, 
Burdett & Co., $1.25), Johnson's Historical Atlas (Scribner, $1), and 
Putzger's Historischer Schul- Atlas (German) (Velhagen and Klassig, 
90 cents) are also good. Gardiner's Atlas of English History (Longmans, 
$1.50) is excellent, and of much service for general European history 
after the fifth century. Outline maps to be filled in by the student are 
almost indispensable. Several good and cheap series are published by 
McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia; Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago; 
D. C. Heath & Co., Boston; and Ginn & Co., Boston. Pictures are also 
very useful. The Perry Pictures (Maiden, Mass.) and the Cosmos Pic- 
tures (296 Broadway, New York) offer cheap and desirable series. The 
Soule Photographic Co., Boston, also publish a series, somewhat more 
expensive. Of source material all libraries should have Robinson's Read- 
ings in European History (Ginn & Co., two volumes), Munro's Source 
Book of Roman History and Fling's Source Book in Greek History 
(Heath & Co.), either Colby or Lee's Source Book in English History, 
together with at least a few general books, of which a brief list follows: 

Green, Short History of the English People. 

Henderson, History of Germany. 

Putnam's Stories of the Nations series will be found useful. 

Adams, Growth of the French Nation. 

Adams, Civilization in the Middle Ages. 

Special periods. 

Gibbon, Decline and Pall of the Roman Empire. 
Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic. 
Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire. 

Special topics. 

Montague, English Constitutional History. 

Adams and Stephens, Select Documents in English Constitutional 
History. 

Jenks, Law and Politics in the Middle Ages. 
Wilson, The State. 

Fowler, The City State of the Greeks and Romans. 
Seeley, Expansion of England. 

Biography. 
Plutarch's Lives. 

Freeman, William the Conqueror. 
Mrs. Green, Henry II. 

Excellent series of biographies are the Heroes of the Nations, pub- 
lished by Putnams; Twelve English Statesmen (Macmillan) ; English 
Men of Action (Macmillan); Foreign Statesmen (Macmillan). It is 
impossible to indicate in full what should be in the high-school historical 
library. Some points should, however, be noted. The books should be 
simple and interesting. The teacher should read them first, if possible, 
before purchasing, to be sure they are fitted to his needs. Very large 
and expensive "sets," especially in extra bindings, should be avoided. A 



108 High School 

good cyclopedia is useful, but one is enough and should not be relied on 
too much. Wall maps such as are published by Kiepert (G. E. Stechert 
& Co., New York, or Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago) are essential and 
may be bought one at a time if necessary. The department will always 
be glad to pass on lists of books submitted by the teachers who expect 
to buy books. Every teacher of history should own a copy of the Report 
of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association (Mac- 
millan, 50 cents), and if possible the Report and Syllabus of the New 
England History Teachers' Association (Heath & Co., Boston). Book 
houses, like McClurg & Co., Chicago, or Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, 
will be glad to submit prices and furnish books. In some cases this 
will prove the most convenient method for teachers and boards to order 
books. 

AMERICAN HISTORY. One unit. 

High schools in which the historical courses conform to the recommen- 
dation of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association 
will devote the last year to American history. For this course the Uni- 
versity provides one unit of entrance credit, but in order to receive credit 
it must not be given earlier than the third year in the high school. If 
given earlier in the course, little more can be accomplished than has al- 
ready been done in the grades. The plan of the American Historical 
Association contemplates uniting American history and civil government, 
but it will be found in practice that the work in history will consume the 
entire year and that instruction in civil government can only be incidental. 

TEXT-BOOKS. 

It will be best to base the work on some approved high-school text. 
A number of such books are available. Among them are Channing's 
Students' History; McLaughlin's American Nation; Adams and Trent's 
United States; Hart's Essentials in American History, and Montgomery's 
Students' History. Occasionally a specially trained instructor, provided 
with a good reference library, may successfully conduct the work without 
a text-book by the topical method. Courses given by this method must 
be approved by the High-school Visitor. 

TOPICAL OUTLINES. 

The use of a topical outline as a guide is recommended, even when a 
text-book is used. Several such outlines are to be had. An excellent one 
is by Mr. George R. Crissman, formerly superintendent of the Salina 
public schools. Others are one by the New England History Teachers' 
Association (Heath, 15 cents) and one published by the New York State 
Department of Education (Department of Education, Albany, 25 cents).. 

MAPS. 

History cannot be taught advantageously without constant reference- 
to maps. It is highly desirable that the student shall be familiar with 
the geography of the United States at the different stages of its develop- 
ment and shall be able to locate the places and physical features men- 
tioned in his lessons. For a general map for the classroom there is 
probably none better than the large Land-office map. (United States 
Land-office, Department of Interior, $1.25.) No adequate atlas of Ameri- 
can history is available. Numerous maps are to be found in the various 
text- and reference-books herein suggested. 

A systematic series of outline maps, prepared by the department of 
American history of the University, and published by Ginn & Co., illus- 
trates all the territorial changes that have ever taken place in the United 
States. Where it is impracticable to take time to fill out the whole series,. 
the books may be divided and the maps used separately. These maps^ 
may also be used for other exercises in map work than those for which, 
they are primarily intended. 



Courses of Study. 109 

REFERENCE-BOOKS. 

Whether the text-book or topical method is employed, a reference 
library is necessary to the best results. In case any one of the suggested 
texts is used, the others may well be used for frequent reference. Good 
single volumes are: 

American Politics (Holt, 80 cents). 

Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Houghton, $1.50). 

Lodge, Short History of the English Colonies in America (Harper, $3). 

Fiske, Beginnings of New England (Houghton, $2). 

Fiske, Dutch and Quaker Colonies, 2 vols. (Houghton, $4). 

Fiske, Old Virginia, 2 vols. (Houghton, $4). 

Fiske, American Revolution, 2 vols. (Houghton, $4). 

Fiske, New France and New England (Houghton, $2) . 

Fiske, Critical Period (Houghton, $2). 

Eggleston, Beginnings of a Nation (Appleton, $1.50). 

Coman, Industrial History of the United States (Macmillan, $1.25). 

Bogart, Economic History of the United States (Longmans, $2). 

Dodge, Birdseye View of the Civil War (Houghton, $1.25). 

Brigham, Geographic Influences in American History. 

Hinsdale, Old Northwest (Silver; $1.75). 

Hosmer, Louisiana Purchase (Appleton, $1). 

Sparks, Expansion of the American People. 

Earle, Child Life in Colonial Days (Macmillan, $2.50). 

Earle, Customs in Old New England (Scribner, $1.25). 

Earle, Home Life in Colonial Days (Macmillan, $2.50). 

Drake, Making of New England (Scribner, $1.50). 

Drake, Making of the Ohio Valley (Scribner, $1.50). 

Drake, Making the Great West (Scribner, $1.50). 

Thwaites, How George Rogers Clark Won the Northwest (McClurg, 
$1.20). 

Thwaites, Rocky Mountain Exploration (Appleton, $1). 

Among the series which are desirable may be mentioned: American 
History Series (Scribner, $1 each), including Fisher, Colonial Era; 
Sloan, French War and the Revolution; Walker, Making the Nation; 
Bingers, The Civil War and the Constitution; Bingers, Reconstruction 
and the Constitution. The Epochs of American History Series (Long- 
mans, $1.25 each), including — Thwaites, The Colonies; Hart, Formation 
of the Union; Wilson, Division and Reunion; Rhodes, History of the 
United States Since 1800, 7 vols. (Macmillan, $17.50) ; Hildreth, History 
of the United States, 6 vols, (out of print, but may be obtained second 
hand) ; Schouler, History of the United States, 5 vols. (Dodd). In addi- 
tion there is the very extensive series. Harts' American Nation, 27 vols., 
but which may be purchased separately (Harper, $2 each). The bio- 
graphies of prominent Americans may be found in The American States- 
man Series (Houghton, $1,25 each). 

SOURCE MATERIALS. 

A judicious use of source materials for illustrative purposes is rec- 
ommended, though this phase of the work should not be carried to excess. 
Constitutional documents and laws should be used very sparingly. In 
this class the following may be found useful: Hart, American History 
Told by Contemporaries, 4 vols. (Macmillan, $2) ; Hill, Liberty Docu- 
ments (Longmans, $2) ; MacDonald, Select Documents (abridged) (Mac- 
millan, $2); Caldwell, Survey of American History (Ainsworth, $1.10). 
Books on the teaching of history: Bourne, Teaching of History and 
Civics (Longmans, $1.50) ; New England History Teachers' Association, 
Historical Sources in Schools (Macmillan, 60 cents) ; Whitcomb, Aids in 
Teaching History (Univ. of Cincinnati). 

GENERAL SURVEY. 

Believing that it will prove helpful to teachers, there is presented 
herewith a general survey of the topics which should be included in the 



110 



High School 



course, together with the per cent, of the total number of class exercises 
which may be devoted to each topic. This outline is taken from the 
Syllabus for Secondary Schools, published by the New York State Educa- 
tion Department. 



General. Survey of the Field. 
The two outside columns show per cent, of total number of exercises. 





I 
Discovery and explorations 
before 1607. 


1 Land and resources 


2 




2 Discovery of America 


2 


7 


3 Exploration and early settlement before Jamestown, 
1492-1607 


3 










II 

Southern colonies, 
1607—1760. 


4 Virginia, 1607 — 1760, a typical Southern colony 

5 Maryland, a typical proprietary colony 


3 

1 




6 Carolinas and Georgia, the Southern frontier colonies. 


1 




Ill 
New England, 1620-1760. 




2 




8 Early Massachusetts, a typical New England colony, 
1629— '50 


2 


10 


9 New England, 1636—1760, typical development of 


6 










IV 
Middle colonies, 1609-1760. 




2 


5 


11 Pennsylvania, "A Quaker Experiment in Govern- 
ment" ; New Jersey and Delaware 


3 










V 
Colonies in the Eighteenth 
century to 1760. 


12 Political and economic development, 1700— '50 

13 Struggle between France and England for North 

America, 1689—1763 


1 
2 


6 


14 The colonies in 1760; political, social and economic 
conditions; comparisons 


3 










VI 
Union and Independence, 
1760- '83. 


15 Causes of the Revolution, 1760— '74 


3 


7 


16 The Revolution, 1775— '83 


4 








7 


VII 
Critical period, 1783— '89. 




7 










VIII 
Federalist supremacy, 
1789-1801. 




2 




19 Foreign relations, 1793—1800 


2 


6 


20 Fall of the Federalists 


2 










IX 
Jeffersonian Republicans, 
1801- '17. 




1 






1 


6 




3 










X 
Reorganization, 1817— '29. 









25 Westward migration and internal improvements 


2 
2 


iO 




1 




28 Political reorganization and triumph of Jackson 


3 




XI 
National democracy, 
1829- '44. 




9. 


6 


30 Overthrow of the United States Bank; financial 


?, 




31 Antislavery agitation, 1881— '38 


?. 










XII 
Slavery in the territories, 
1844-'60.; 




















XIII 
Secession and the civil 
war, 1860— '65. 








35 The civil war 1861— '65 












XIV 
Problems of peace. 


36 Reconstruction. The new South and the race prob- 






37 Political problems : Civil service, foreign relations. 






38 Economic problems : Currency, tariff, trusts, labor. 


















Courses of Study. Ill 

ECONOMICS. One unit. 

The Purpose of the Study of Economics. With this, as with other 
subjects of study, two aims are to be considered: first, the development 
of mental faculties; second, the acquiring of knowledge concerning a field 
in which the student is to be engaged after leaving his studies. The first 
of these aims is generally spoken of as the educational, the second as the 
practical result of a study. Economics, as the science which classifies 
and explains the activities of man in producing and using wealth- 
activities that consume an extremely large portion of every man's life 

^may fairly claim to possess practical value to a very great extent. 

Nor is this study lacking in value for mental discipline. Teachers are 
now agreed that educational value is found, not necessarily m the sub- 
ject, but rather in the way the subject is taught. Subjects that have 
been longer taught may have some educational advantage in the fact 
that their scope and method have been more clearly defined and settled 
by longer experience of teaching. Still, the disadvantage under which 
economics labors by reason of its comparative newness in the school is 
by no means great. Indeed, in the hands of a resourceful teacher this 
newness may add to the interest and usefulness of the study by making it 
more adaptable to peculiar conditions. 

The second of the aims of study mentioned above — the accumulation of 
knowledge concerning things with which the student is to have necessary 
and important relations — can certainly be satisfied by few subjects so 
well as by the subject of economics. This practical value of economics as 
a high-school study, as a means of fitting for capable participation both 
in public affairs and in private business, has been set forth in a bulletin 
of the University (vol. VIII, No. 1) , which will be sent on application to 
the registrar. 

The Method op Instruction. The comparative newness of this sub- 
ject and its consequent fiexibility give opportunity for a good teacher to 
make economics extremely instructive by adapting his method to the 
conditions familiar to his students. It is generally found advantageous 
to arouse the elementary pupil's attention and interest by introducing 
the subject in a more concrete way than by dealing first and solely with 
the broad abstract principles of the science. If the student can be 
brought, in even a few instances, to appreciate the fact that these ab- 
stract principles are generalizations based upon and explaining familiar 
occurrences and problems of economic life, he will be made more willing 
to deal with the sometimes dry and unattractive, but inexorable, eco- 
nomic laws. Consequently the more recent text-books generally approach 
the real body of economic theory through introductory matter of some 
one of the following forms: (1) By a summary sketch of the main steps 
through which the familiar present economic organization has developed 
from the simple economic life of primitive man (e. g., Blackmar's Eco- 
nomics, Ely's Outlines of Economics) ; (2) by a brief sketch of the eco- 
nomic history of the last century or two, thus showing more concretely 
than in the preceding, but for a briefer period, the evolution of existing 
economic conditions (e.g., Seager's Introduction to Economics, Bullock's 
Introduction to Economics, Thurston's Economics and Industrial His- 
tory) ; (3) by a sketch of the scope and method of economic science, or 
of the fundamental concepts and forces of economic life, or of the devel- 
opment of economic thought, sometimes in connection with economic his- 
tory {e. g., Newcomb's Principles of Political Economy, Seligman's Prin- 
ciples of Economics, Blackmar's Economics, Devine's Economics, Daven- 
port's Outlines of Economic Theory; (4) by raising problems that have 
puzzled the pupil, or by calling upon him to explain facts so familiar as 
to have been overlooked. Some of the text-books use a combination of 
two or more of the above forms of introductory material. Each of these 
forms of stimulating the pupil's attention and effort may be used to ad- 
vantage, but probably the third is least promising for elementary stu- 



112 ■ High School 

'dents. The fourth may often be very helpful for this grade of students, 
but the teacher will be obliged to work out such a form to fit the environ- 
ment and conditions of his own classes. He may find helpful suggestions, 
however, in Clow's Introduction to the Study of Commerce (Silver, Bur- 
dett & Co., $1.25) ; and perhaps also in Taylor's Economics of Agricul- 
ture (The Macmillan Company, $1.25), or in Fairchild's Agricultural 
Economics. 

The Teacher. The method, however, will be of slight importance as 
compared with the teacher. A thoroughly good teacher will succeed with 
any method. The method can be no more than an aid to the teacher. 
First of all, the teacher must have an interest in the subject and a knowl- 
edge of it. "It should be taught by some one who knows a great deal 
more about the subject than he could possibly tell to his students." A 
teacher must have a knowledge exceeding the limits of the class text. 
The related fields of history and political science furnish much to better 
equip the teacher of economics, but especially important to him are a 
knowledge of economic history, especially of England and the United 
States, and of the history of economic thought. Only those who are fa- 
miliar with these subjects can fully appreciate the frequency with which 
greater force and clearness are given to an econoniic principle by an 
historical instance in which its operation has clearly appeared. None 
but those who have some acquaintance with the development of economic 
thought can understand how important it is toward fully understanding 
and explaining economic principles as held at present. 

Equipment. Works of reference for collateral reading are of great 
importance for both teacher and pupil. As the school and public libraries 
are generally deficient, especially in this important subject, it is desirable 
that extra effort be made to provide at least a few of the best works on 
economics. Care should be exercised in choosing these in order that not 
only the older writers may be represented, but also the numerous recent 
writers who give newer forms of expression to the old theories. Pref- 
erence should be given, in getting together a school library, rather to 
more extensive and thorough works than to other brief works similar to 
the text-book, in order that the inquiring student may find in the library 
fuller and more satisfying information instead of merely a restatement 
of what the text has given him. Other works than treatises on eco- 
nomics should be at hand. Many governmental publications are very 
useful in this field. The books needed will differ somewhat according to 
the way in which the teacher treats the subject. Many of the treatises 
give bibliographies. One of the best recent lists of references may be 
found in Seligman's Principles of Economics (Longmans, Green & Co., 
New York, $2.25). The University will gladly advise teachers* in this 
matter, if requested. 

The Course. After an introductory portion of one sort or another, 
as suggested above, chosen by the teacher to suit his interests and abili- 
ties and those of his pupils, the subject may be divided into the following 
main portions. Their order is subject to some degree of variation, differ- 
ent writers and teachers differing slightly as to the preferred order of 
treatment. In an elementary course it seems desirable to give very brief 
consideration to some portions of the subject, and to concentrate attention 
on some of the more pressing or more familiar portions, not only as a 
means of stimulating the pupil's interest, but also for the purpose of 
training him to close consecutive thinking on economic topics. 

1. — Consumption. In the complete outline presented below, consumption 
is the first topic, although many teachers prefer to begin with production, 
as was, indeed, the earlier teaching practice of the writer. Man puts 
forth his efforts in order that he may in some way procure things to sat- 
isfy his desires for food, clothing, recreation, and many other sorts of 
wants. Hence, consumption, the process of obtaining such satisfaction, 



Courses op Study. 113 

seems the fundamental consideration — the motive of all economic action. 
Human wants, their variety, their constant development and extension, 
their significance as indices of civilization, furnish a familiar, although 
little considered point of entrance for the pupil. From the classification 
of these wants those of distinctly economic character are brought forth 
as the basis of this study. A clear presentation of just what economic 
consumption is and what it should be brings up the numerous problems 
of saving, luxury, waste, and the proper relation of consumption and pro- 
duction. Understanding the aim or motive, the pupil is prepared to go 
on to the consideration of the means by which the consumption is made 
possible, viz., production. 

2. — Value. But before taking up production, the teacher may choose 
to briefly consider the fundamental principles of value. The reasons for 
this are: First, that value, according to the now universally accepted 
marginal utility theory, is the outcome primarily of human economic 
wants, and so can most clearly be treated in close connection with those 
wants; second, that the principles of value are so frequently referred to 
throughout the study of economics as to make the postponement of their 
elucidation extremely inconvenient to both teacher and pupil. A more 
exhaustive consideration of value may be taken up later, if desired. 

3. — Production. The true nature of production and its difference from 
mere acquisition furnish a ready means of emphasizing the general social 
point of view, a most important step toward the betterment of many pres- 
ent abuses, and toward the growth of a better spirit of citizenship. The 
part played in production by land or nature, by labor or man, by capital, 
and by management, a special form of labor, as well as by other forces, 
such as social and political organization, should be clearly brought out, in 
order that the future citizen and business man may correctly appreciate 
the importance of each and of right relations between them. A study of 
the various main forms or classes of production, with the differing im- 
portance of the factors in each, will greatly help the pupil toward 
broader and fairer views than those likely to arise from his associations 
and individual interests. 

4.- — Distribution. This, the most complicated and difficult of the divi- 
sions of economics, will probably have to be treated briefly and incom- 
pletely in the high-school course, but the teacher may at least make sure 
that the problems are clearly presented to the pupil's mind if not entirely 
solved. That the present problems of distribution are more than mere 
matters of exchange and transportation should be clearly grasped by the 
teacher and as clearly impressed upon his pupils. Consequently the ques- 
tions of rent, wages, interest and profits must be carefully discussed, if 
not fully disposed of. Attention may also be profitably called to the 
great influence of social law, custom, and organization in this field. Ex- 
change, with its various organizations, forms and methods — transporta- 
tion in its present and growing importance, the mechanisms of trade, 
money and credit, the important institutions of banking, domestic and 
foreign trade — all offer material for profitable study. In beginning the 
consideration of exchange some teachers find it advisable to give fuller 
consideration to the principles of value, but this seems of doubtful ad- 
visability in the high school. 

Many problems of general or local interest, such as irrigation, im- 
proved roads, agricultural methods, the tariff, various other taxes, the 
economic functions of various grades of government, labor organizations, 
monopolies, socialism, and numerous others, will present themselves from 
time to time. They should not be permitted to absorb attention to the 
exclusion of the principles upon which right judgments concerning them 
must be based, nor should they be hastily or unwisely excluded from 
consideration. The teacher's judgment will find abundant exercise in de- 
termining the attention due them. Such subjects may generally be 
treated most satisfactorily in connection with that portion "of the course 



114 High School 

to which they are most intimately related, and indeed they are likely to 
present themselves in such connection. 

Every teacher should have at his command a few books that treat the 
subjects more fully than are found in the works named above, but which 
are too difficult to be used as text-books. The following carefully se- 
lected books will answer the purpose : 

Industrial Evolution, by Carl Biicher. 

Evolution of Industrial Society, by Richard T. Ely. 

The Races of Man, by J. Deniker. 

The Industrial and Social History of England, by Edward P. Chejmey. 

The Principles of Economics, by E. R. A. Seligman. 

The Principles of Economics, by Frank A. Fetter. 

Money and Banking, by William A. Scott. 

The Labor Movement in America, by Richard T. Ely. 

The Trust Problem, by J. W. Jenks. 

Taxation in Modern States, and Cities, by R. T. Ely. 

Economics (for colleges), by F. W. Blackmar. 

CIVICS. One-half unit. 

Government in general. 
Necessity. 
Origin. 
Forms. 

Home; school; township; county; city; state; national. 
Kinds of national. 

Monarchy; aristocracy; democracy; republic; mixed. 
Rights and duties of subjects of government. 

Rights: Protection; liberty; property; education; suffrage — ballot, 

Australian ballot. 
Duties: In the home, community, state, nation. 
Laws to guarantee rights. 
Common and statutory. 
Civil and criminal. 
Means of enforcing rights and of exacting performance of duties. 

Police power; courts — juvenile and ordinary; jails and penitentiaries. 
United States constitution. 
Origin. 

Colonial government. 

Charter; proprietary; royal. 
Colonial congresses. 
Articles of confederation. 
Federal conventions. 

Members; compromises. 
Adoption of constitution. 
Constitution. 
Definitions. 

Constitution, nation, state, sovereignty, right, privilege, immunity. 
Mechanical construction. 

Articles, sections, clauses. 
Departments. 
Legislative. 

House of representatives — organization; members; election; 
qualifications; apportionment; gerrymandering; contests; 
vacancies; judicial powers; privileges; compensation; repre- 
sentatives from territories. 
Senate — organization; members; election; term; qualifications; 
contests; vacancies; officers; judicial power; executive pow- 
ers; privileges; compensation. 
Method of legislation — meetings of Congress; adjournment; 
sessions; quorum; committees; calendar; process of passing 
a bill; veto; voting; "lobbying"; "filibustering." 



Courses of Study. 115 

Constitution — continued. 
Departments. 
Legislative. 

Powers of Congress — kinds. Taxation — kinds, tariff, excise, 
commerce. Finance — money; debt; banks; bankruptcy; 
counterfeiting. Postal. Copyrights and patents. Courts. 
War, Army. Navy. Militia. Exclusive legislation. Ter- 
ritories — acquisition, government. 
Powers denied Congress — Importations prior to 1808. Writ of 
habeas corpus. Bill of attainder, ex post facto law. Cap- 
itation tax. Export duty. Equality of ports. Money 
drawn from treasury. 
Powers denied the states — absolute prohibitions — treaty; alli- 
ance; confederation; marque; money; bills of credit; legal 
tender; attainder; ex post facto law; contracts; titles; im- 
port and export duties. Conditional prohibitions — tonnage; 
troops; warships; compacts; war. 
Executive. 

The President — term, qualifications. Election; party organiza- 
tion. Compensation. Vacancy. Succession laws. Impeach- 
ment. 
The cabinet: Departments; duties; bureaus. 

Powers: Diplomatic — treaties, foreign representatives. Leg- 
islative — special sessions, adjournment, veto, message, exe- 
cution of laws. Military — commander-in-chief, war officers. 
Judicial — pardons and reprieves. Civil — appointments and 
removals. 
Judiciary — composition; tenure; compensation. Courts — supreme, 
circuit court of appeals, circuit, district, territorial, claims. Dis- 
trict of Columbia, equity, diplomatic, colonial. Judges — juris- 
diction of each court. Kinds of jurisdiction. Treason — defini- 
tion; punishment. 
Interstate relations, public acts, records, etc. Privileges and im- 
munities; fugitives from justice; fugitives from service. 
Relations between states and nation : Admission of states — method ; 
limitations; territorial government; control of dependencies. 
Guaranties of the United States to every state. 
Amending the constitution — how? Limitations. 

National debts; supreme law; oath; religious test; ratification. 
Amendments. 

The bill of rights: Guaranties to the people — freedom, speech, 
press, religion, assemble; bear arms; security in homes. 
Quartering troops; accusation of crime — presentment or in- 
dictment, trial, bail, fines, punishment. 
Later amendments — suits against a state; election of President. 
Slavery, abolished. Citizenship, suffrage. 
State constitution (if not provided for elsewhere in course of study). 
Origin. 
Bill of rights. 
Departments. 
Other articles. 
Amendments. 



116 " High School 



Group VII. 



ARITHMETIC. One-half unit. 

The object of one half-year of arithmetic in the high-school normal 
course is not only to develop a practical degree of accuracy and rapidity 
in the fundamental rules and the various processes of arithmetic, but to 
secure an approach to the subject with the developed reasoning power of 
the high-school pupil so as to enable him to see the application of princi- 
ples to practice. Emphasis should therefore be given to the best methods 
of presentation, good forms of analysis, neatness and good arrangement 
of work. Drill should include practical rules for weighing, measuring, 
estimating; common business forms, notes, accounts; the application of 
the principles of percentage, drafts, banking; ratio and proportion and 
their applications, including drill on shortening ordinary processes by 
the use of proportion; involution and evolution, considered with reference 
both to their algebraic and geometric relations. The course should be, 
in brief, a comprehensive and thorough review of the subject, with a view 
to clear understanding of principles and accuracy in practice. 

COMMERCIAL. 

General Scope. The application of general education to vocational 
life is the ultimate object of instruction in commercial subjects. The 
mere routine of office work has little to do with a broad commercial 
knowledge. Every member of society needs an understanding of the 
primary requirements of business. The high school needs to be brought 
into closer relation with the problems of life, and when this is accom- 
plished the number attending will be much larger. In his study of the 
commercial subjects the student should be trained for life as well as for 
livelihood. It is hoped that the commercial course may increase the stu- 
dent's efficiency in whatever vocation he may choose, by enabling him to 
understand more clearly his relations to his fellow men; by introducing 
him to the methods and usages of modern business life ; by leading him to 
see in transactions around him something of the great world of com- 
merce; by giving him a slight knowledge of those laws which will be of 
most benefit in the ordinary affairs of life ; by making him. a more intelli- 
gent citizen through the thoughtful, systematic, careful training of his 
powers, and by helping him to be a thinking individual, not an automaton. 

Bookkeeping and Business Practice. One unit. 

The work in bookkeeping and business practice should use matter ap- 
proaching as nearly as possible real transactions. The student should be 
led by induction to master the principles of the subject, and should learn 
to think in terms of the account. He should receive drill in double-entry 
bookkeeping, working a large number of graded sets from day-book or 
journal entry to the closing of the ledger; should become familiar with 
business paper of the more common forms, such as bills, receipts, notes 
and drafts; should learn how to make deposits and draw checks. When 
double entry is completed, the principles of single entry are taken. 
Something should be learned of wholesale and retail business, making 
use of special-column books. Shipping and commission business should 
be introduced through sets taken from actual transactions. The ele- 
mental principles of banking in relation to business life should be 



Courses of Study. 117 

studied, beginning with the simplest transactions. All sets used should 
be of sufficient length to show the continuity of business, and fragmen- 
tary work should be avoided. The best modern business methods are to 
be used. The fundamental principles of modern business should be 
studied, and the tracing of transactions from their beginning to their end 
should receive attention. The student should be helped to decide how, in 
actual life, he could best serve the business interests concerned; and 
should become an independent thinker. The object of the course is to fit 
the student as fully as possible, without actual contact with business 
affairs, to enter practical business life. 

Commercial Law. One-half unit. 

The aim of instruction in commercial law is to familiarize the student 
with his individual rights, duties and limitations in the business world. 
It involves an understanding of those fundamental legal principles most 
often of value to a business man. Law is in the main only common jus- 
tice and common morality, and this fact should be emphasized through- 
out the entire course. There is no other subject which so clearly brings 
out the individual's relation to the community, the state or the nation. 
The student should understand the great divisions of law, and should be 
given a working knowledge of the laws governing contracts, personal and 
real property and bailments, agency, partnership, corporations, insur- 
ance, negotiable and other commercial paper, collections, common carriers, 
courts and their jurisdictions, pleadings and practice. In connection with 
commercial paper, deeds, mortgages, etc., standard forms should be avail- 
able for illustration, and the student should be required to draw up the 
more common forms in concrete transactions. 

Commercial Geography. One-half unit. 

Commercial geography involves two points of view — physical geog- 
raphy, and the activities and organizations of men. The balance between 
economic affairs and physical science should be made the basis in the pre- 
sentation of this subject. The interpretation of commercial life as de- 
pendent upon physical surroundings is the object of the study. The 
facts of commerce are treated as the effect of conditions that determine 
the quality and quantity of trade. Geography is the primary considera- 
tion; commercial data are of little value unless they are so arranged as to 
illustrate the great principle of cause and effect. The great trunk lines 
of commerce should be traced from their sources, and their causes an- 
alyzed. Maps must be freely used in determining the physical features 
of a country. Invention, governmental activity or conservatism, indus- 
trial processes and products, transportation facilities, kind and extent of 
manufactures, influence of other resources of the territory, are some of 
5^ economic questions to be considered. Only principal commodities 
should be studied, and statistics should be used with moderation. A 
geographical museum of countries and products is of great value, and is 
easily started. With skilful handling this subject becomes of absorbisg 
interest, and from it arise conceptions of world-activity more broadening 
than can be found m any other subject in the course. 

Stenography. One unit. 

Shorthand requires precision in distinguishing sounds, and necessi- 
tates the closest attention. Accuracy in reading and in making forms 
must be insisted upon from the beginning. The student should be given 
a general view of the system, being drilled thoroughly on each principle 
as It IS presented. Logograms, contractions and phrasing should re- 
ceive special attention. No carelessness whatever should be allowed. In 
transcription, the spelling, paragraphing and general arrangement must 
=L!^Ti^ ^^ correct. Accuracy is the first requirement in shorthand, 
speed the second. In the latter half of the year miscellaneous dictation 



118 High School 

work should be introduced, thus adding to the student's vocabulary and 
increasing his general knowledge. Common legal and business forms 
may well be included in the dictation. Verbatim reporting of speeches, 
sermons, etc., and transcription of the same, furnish valuable practice. 
Much reading of shorthand should be required. Standard selections in 
shorthand may be secured at reasonable cost, and the more of these the 
student can read the better for his shorthand work. The ability to tran- 
scribe accurately work taken at the rate of 100 words per minute should 
be the minimum requirement in this course. 

Typewriting. One-half unit. 

Introduce the subject with a careful study of the machine to be used, 
with instruction as to its care, mechanism and possibilities. The touch 
system of writing should be used exclusively. Proper fingering should 
be insisted upon in all manipulations of the machine. A light, rapid, 
smooth and even touch must be acquired early. After the keyboard is 
mastered accuracy should be the first object to be attained. Neatness 
should characterize all work done. Voice dictation should be given from 
the beginning for a short period each day. The matter given should in- 
clude letters, specifications, legal forms, selections from standard litera- 
ture, envelope addresses, arrangement of business letters, and tabula- 
tions. Instruction should include writing on paper of different sizes 
with or without lines, taking manuscript poorly arranged or badly writ- 
ten, and transforming it into a correctly spelled and written copy. Style 
of arrangement is an infallible test of proficiency in typewriting, and 
should therefore be emphasized. To be able to write without error, and 
at the same time smoothly and rapidly, any kind of miscellaneous matter 
or business documents, is the end and aim of typewriting. The ability 
to write thirty-five words per minute in accordance with the above stand- 
ard should be the minimum requirement in this course. 

Business Arithmetic. One-half unit. 

To make the student's work accurate, rapid and self-reliant should be 
the aim. More stress should be laid upon understanding of principles 
and processes than upon rapidity. The course should include practical 
short methods, continual mental drill, and much work in the fundamental 
operations. The method should be inductive, leading to a mastery of 
principles through problems. The student should be led to think ac- 
curately and rapidly, and mental development should be pronounced. 
When the principles are thoroughly mastered, the pupil will be inde- 
pendent of rules, and can easily solve the problems of ordinary business 
life. All processes used in common business transactions should be 
carefully studied. Only concrete and practical problems should be given, 
and the best modem methods used in their solution. 



Courses of Study. 119 



Group VIIL 



DOMESTIC SCIENCE. 

In preparing an outline for the teaching of cooking in the high schools 
of Kansas, it seems desirable to state that no entirely satisfactory text- 
book has been prepared upon the subject. Much must depend upon the 
individual teacher, and the instruction necessarily will be largely by 
lectures, supplemented more or less by reference done by the student. 

It is desirable to have periods of ninety minutes each on alternate 
days, rather than a shorter period every day. Theory and practice so 
intermingle in the teaching of cooking that it is difficult to separate them 
advantageously. There is a certain amount of time lost at the beginning 
and end of each period by fire-building, utensil-cleansing, and the don- 
ning and removing of aprons, etc. The proportionate loss of time is 
much less when there is a ninety-minute period allotted. , , . ,, 

The first object to be sought in teaching cooking is to inculcate m the 
minds of students a love for and an appreciation of household duties. 
In every instance the reasons for processes should be carefully ex- 
plained, for work ceases to be drudgery when it is understandmgly per- 
formed. Habits of personal cleanliness, cleanliness of methods, and 
obedience to instruction should be insisted upon. 

In all cases the teaching will be more satisfactory if it can be as- 
sumed that the student has some knowledge of chemistry, though this 
knowledge is not absolutely essential. The state text on physiology will 
be found to prepare for a part of the work given in cooking. 

It is necessary that the instructor should have received some training 
in management of laboratories before attempting to teach this branch. 

The amount of equipment required may prove expensive for the 
weaker schools. In all cases there should be individual desks for each 
student, supplied with a drawer, bread board and desk board to be used 
on the desk during working period. The drawers should be equipped 
with the articles most often used by the student. The top of the desk 
must be of some material that can be thoroughly cleansed. When wood 
is used as the top it should be well seasoned, close grained, and of a 
variety that will warp but little when frequently wet. Wherever possible 
there should be a separate stove for each worker. One or more sinks 
supplied with hot and cold water are necessary, as is one range for wood, 
coal or gas. The ideal arrangement of desks and sinks is one sink for 
every two or four students, placed between the pairs of desks, the whole 
being arranged in the form of a hollow square, open at least at two 
ends. Inexpensive kitchen tables or kitchen cabinets may be used as 
desks when rigid economy is necessary. 
Lesson I. Lesson II — continued. 

Enrolment of class. 
Assignment to desks 



Dictation of laboratory rules. 
Explanation of laboratory 
general. 

Lesson II. ' 

Cleansing agents. 

Water — Iiard and soft. 

Soap. 

Scouring materials. 



Cooking utensils. 
Sanitary. 

Non-corrodible. 

Easily cleaned. 

Light weight. 
Durable. 
Economical. 
Esthetic. 
Laboratory accompanying this 
lesson should be that of 
cleaning desk and general 
utensils. 



120 



High School 



Lesson III. 

Objects of cooking. 
Methods of cookery. 
Definition of food. 
Classification of food. 

Lesson IV. 

Water as a food. 

Sources. 

Contamination. 

Purification. 

Quantity required. 

Physical changes from heat 
and cold. 
Laboratory. 

Heating of water, observation of 
tempei-ature at which steam 
forms, gathering of air bubbles 
on sides of utensil, the forma- 
tion of steam globules on bot- 
tom of utensil, point of active 
ebullition. The change of boil- 
ing-point due to density of 
solution may be illustrated by 
the addition of sugar to the 
boiling water. The sugar solu- 
tion should be boiled until all 
water is driven off and until 
the resulting sugar becomes an 
amber liquid. This may be 
flavored with hoarhound, when 
it becomes hoarhound candy. 

Lesson V. 

Carbohydrates. 

Sugar. (See note below.) 
Chemical composition. 
Occurrence. 
Manufacture. 
Changes due to heat. 
Laboratory. 

Peanut brittle. 

Lesson VI. 

Carbohydrates continued. 
Sugar. 

Chemical changes. 
Hydrolysis. 
Digestion. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 

The making of fondant. 

Lesson VII. 

Carbohydrates. 
Starch. 

Chemical composition. 
Occurrence. 
Manufacture. 
Action in hot and cold 
water. 
Laboratory. 

Experiments with starch. 



Lesson VIII. 

Carbohydrates. 
Starch. 

Digestion. 
Potatoes. 

Composition. 
Cookery. 
Laboratory. 
Potatoes. 
Boiled. 
Baked. 
Riced. 

Lesson IX. 

Carbohydrates. 
Starch. 

Digestion completed. 
Previous work reviewed. 
Laboratory. 

White sauce — first method. 
Creamed potatoes. 

Lesson X. 

Carbohydrates. 
Cellulose. 
Structure. 
Composition. 
Occurrence. 
Laboratory. 

White sauce — second method. 
Creamed turnips. 

Lesson XI. 

Carbohydrates. 
Cellulose. 

Digestion. 
General rules for cookery of 
vegetables. 
Laboratory. 

White sauce — ^third method. 
Buttered crumbs. 
Scalloped cabbage. 

Lesson XII. 

Carbohydrates. 

Cocoa and chocolate. 
Source. 
Manufacture. 
Chemical composition. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 

Chocolate corn-starch mold. 
Cocoa. 



2Vote. — Sugar work is chosen because the student must understand sugar and 
sugar digestion before she can understand starch digestion. The quantities used 
may be very small, and if economy is necessary the products of the experiment may 
be sold. 



Courses op Study. 



121 



Lesson XIII, 

Carbohydrates. 
Cereals. 

Definition. 
Manner of growth. 
Structure of corn, wheat 

and oats. 
Rules for cooking cereals. 
Laboratory. 

Cream of wheat with figs. 

Lesson XIV. 

Carbohydrates. 
Cereals. 

Commercial preparation 
of cereal breakfast 
foods. 
Dietetic value. 
Economic value. 
Laboratory. 

Cracked wheat. 
Rolled oats. 

Lesson XV. 

Vegetable acids. 
Mineral matter. 
Laboratory. 

White sauce — first method. 

Tomato soup. 

Lesson XVI. 

General review of carbohydrate 

foods. 
Laboratory. 

Escalloped macaroni. 

Lesson XVII. 
Fats and oils. 
Sources. 

Chemical composition. 
Changes due to heat. 
Changes due to bacterial 
action. 
Laboratory. 
Apple pie. 

Lesson XVIII. 
Fats and oils. 

Action of alkalies. 

Digestion. 

Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 

Soap-making. 

Lesson XIX. 
Fats and oils. 

Emulsification of fats. 

Digestion completed. 
Laboratory. 

Mayonnaise dressing. 

Celery salad. 



Lesson XX. 

Fats and oils. 
Adulterations. 
Substitutions. 

Rules for frying in deep fat. 
Definition of saute. 
Laboratory. 

Rice croquettes. 

Lesson XXI. 
Proteids. 

General composition. 
Occurrence. 

Characteristics of albumens. 
In water. 

In saline solutions. 
In acid. 
In alkalies. 
In alcohol. 
When heated. 
Laboratory. 

Experiments with white of 



Lesson XXII. 
Proteids. 

Characteristics of globulins. 
In water. 

In saline solutions. 
In acid. 
In alkalies. 
In alcohol. 
When heated. 
Laboratory. 

Soft-cooked egg. 
Poached egg on toast. 

Lesson XXIII. 
Proteids. 
Eggs. 

Sources. 
Structure. 
Preservation. 
Tests for condition. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 
Omelets. 

Lesson XXIV. 
Proteids. 
Milk. 

General composition. 
Sources. 
Digestion of proteids. 
Laboratory. 

Junket custard. 



122 



High School 



Lesson XXV. 
Proteids. 
Milk. 

Changes due to bacteria. 
Preservation and care of 

milk. 
Dietetic value. 
Digestion of proteids con- 
tinued. 
Laboratory. 

Soft steamed custard. 

Lesson XXVL 
Proteids. 

Milk products — cheese. 
Composition. 
Manufacture. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 

Cheese pudding. 
Baked custard. 

Lesson XXVII. 
Proteids. 
Meat. 

General composition. 
Muscle structure. 
Effect of heat. 
Laboratory. 

Pan-broiled steak. 
Pot roast. 

Lesson XXVIII. 
Proteids. 
Fish. 

Varieties. 
Composition. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 

Fish fried in deep fat. 

Lesson XXIX. 
Gelatin. 
Source. 
Characteristics in hot and 

cold water. 
Dietetic value. 
Laboratory. 
Lemon jelly. 
Orange sponge. 



Lesson XXX. 

Leavening agents. 

Objects of leavening. 

Rules for batters and doughs. 

Use of air as leavening agent. 
Laboratory. 

Popovers. 

Lesson XXXI. 

Leavening agents. 
Soda. 

Manufacture. 
Action with acid. 
Laboratory. 
Gingerbread. 

Lessons XXXII. 

Leavening agents. 
Baking powders. 

General composition. 
Tartaric. 
Phosphate. 
Alum. 
Residues left in bread. 
Laboratory. 

Baking-powder biscuit. 

Lesson XXXIII. 

Leavening agents. 
Yeast. 

Definition. 
Mode of growth. 
Requisites for growth. 
Injurious micro-organ- 
isms. 
Laboratory. 

Liquid-yeast making. 

Lesson XXXIV. 
Flour. 

Varieties. 
Manufacture. 
Qualities. 

General composition. 
Laboratory. 

Experiments washing out 

the starch and gluten of 

flour. 



Lesson XXXV. 
Bread. 

General composition. 
Qualities of good bread. 
Common faults of bread, 

with causes. 
Dietetic value. 
Economic value. 
Laboratory. 

Bread-making. 

The foregoing lessons are only offered as a suggestion, and can be ex- 
tended by each teacher to meet the particular conditions under which she 
works. The more complete the equipment, the more rapidly can she 
progress in her work. It is never desirable to so overcrowd the student 
that she neglects cleanliness and order in her work. 



Courses of Study. 123 



MANUAL TRAINING. 

Object. The purpose of this course is to give a broader knowledge 
of materials and a wider range of expression. The united action of mind 
and hand secures coordination of mental and motor activities and by- 
continued reaction insures the harmonious development of both mind 
and body. It gives to the pupil greater control of his physical powers 
and increases his ability to do his will by teaching him to know his pos- 
sibilities and his limitations. 

Course. To accomplish these purposes the work suggested for one 
year in the high school may be outlined as follows: For the first half- 
term it would be advisable to require the pupils to take a series of prac- 
tice exercise work, to familiarize them with the various tools, the method 
of using them, and to learn the common practice in joinery and construc- 
tion. For such a course the following exercises are well adapted for 
this purpose: 

1. Squaring and planing exercise and sawing to lines. 

2. Cross halved together, requiring close measurements in laying out, 
and the use of the chisel, in addition to all work required in No. 1. 

3. Series of mortises. Giving method of chiseling through the wood, 
and requiring the use of the block-plane to finish ends of the work. 

4. Mortise and tenon joint. This is one of the most common and use- 
ful methods of joining work, and various ways of applying this exercise 
could be suggested. This brings in the work found in No. 3. 

5. Chiseling exercise, in which the use of the chisel is taught in cut- 
ting across the grain, diagonally across the grain, cutting curved sur- 
faces, chamfering, and similar work. 

6. Making bench-hook. This may be made of glued-up stock or plain 
stock. This is a necessary article of use, the pupil using it constantly 
at the work-bench. It brings into play the rip-saw cutting on an angle 
with the grain, cutting slots, and use of the brace and bit m bormg holes. 

7. Table leg with two rails, showing two methods of making the table 
leg, using the chisels; drawing-knife n\ethod of making and using dowel- 

8." These exercises will bring the pupil to the point where he will be 
able to join stock in doing glued work, and the eighth exercise may be 
glueing different woods together, and using it in making gavels, paper- 
weights, blotter-pads and similar articles. 

This will keep the pupils busy for the first half-term. It is suggested 
that the next half-term be devoted to the making of small articles of 
use in which new methods are employed, and aiming constantly to give 
the new work such a turn that the pupil will be acquiring knowledge and 
skill, and to hold the interest of the pupil by making such articles as 
will be of use to him or in the home. The following are suggestions, 
and the good teacher will be able to vary these in such a way that the 
class Avill be thoroughly interested: 

1. Towel-roller and towel-racks. 2. T-square. 3. Oilstone box. 4. 
Handkerchief and glove boxes. 5. Knife and fork box. 6. Picture-frame. 
7. Easel. 8. Footstool. 

The preliminary work such as is suggested may occupy the pupil the 
first half of the year, and let the last half of the year be devoted to 
cabinet work, in which larger articles are made. The making of mission 
furniture is a large field of suggestion for this part of the year's work. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The equipment consists of the following: 

For each pupil. Bench, with front and end vise, jack-plane, block- 
plane, two-fold rule (2-foot), try-square, back saw, bench-hook, spoke- 
shave, sloyd knife, marking-gage, file, chisels (1", Vz" , %"), cutting-board, 
mallet, whisk-broom. 



124 High School 

For general use. Rip-saws, cross-cut saws, hammers, screw-drivers, 
bit-braces, auger-bits (^/le" to i^/ie"), expansive bit (%" to 3"), di- 
viders, awls, countersinks, scraper, coping-saws, turning-saws, nail-sets, 
framing square, grindstone, oilstones, screw-clamps, gouges, carving 
tools, carving punches, hand drill, band-saw, lathe. 

The following books are used for supplementary reading and for an 
acquaintance with the literature of manual training: Theory of Edu- 
cational Sloyd, Solomon; Teachers' Handbook of Sloyd, Solomon; Sloyd 
for Upper Grammar Grades, Larsson; The Manual Training School, 
Woodward; Mind and Hand, Ham; Bench- work in Wood, Goss; Exer- 
cises in Woodwork, Sickels; Arts Crafts for Beginners, Sanford; School 
Arts Books, Manual Training Magazine, Notes on Mechanical Drawing, 
Mathewson; Mechanical Drawing, Tracy; New Methods in Education, 
Todd; Problems in Furniture Making, Crawshaw; Problems in Wood- 
work, Murray; and reports of the Council of Supervisors, Eastern Man- 
ual Training Association and Bureau of Education. 

MECHANICAL DRAWING. 

In connection with the joinery and cabinet work, a year of instruc- 
tion in mechanical drawing may well be given to enable pupils to gain 
proficiency in the use of drafting instruments as a means of expression, 
familiarity with some of the simple, practical geometrical constructions, 
and a knowledge of orthographic projection with its application to the 
making of working-drawings. The course includes the making of twenty 
to twenty-five plates of drawings, consisting of exercise sheets, geo- 
metrical solids, working-drawings from a series of simple models, geo- 
metrical constructions, shadow projections, surface developments and 
problems illustrating isom"fetric and cabinet projection and the intersec- 
tion of solids. (See chapters on "Construction Drawing" in Prang's 
Art Education for High Schools.) 

"True art is neither a superfluous nor a luxurious matter, but a 
national resource." 

Art Instruction for High Schools. One unit. 

FIRST YEAR. 

First term: 

Drawing from natural forms, as autumn flowers, seeds, plants, in- 
sects, in brush, pencil, ink and color. 

Adaptations of natural forms for purposes of decoration. 

Nature designs for motto illumination. 

Study of Egyptian units of decoration. 

Use of Egyptian units in cover design for drawing folio. 
Second term: 

Color nomenclature. 

Scales of color. 

Color values in gray. 

Complementary colors. 

Color harmonies. 

Flat washes. 

Color harmonies applied to design. 

Study Greek design. 

Make cover design for drawing folio, using Greek unit. 
Third term: 

Principles of design: arrangement of straight lines, curved lines, and 
dark and light values for balance and rhythm. 

Decorative use of landscape compositions in neutral values and corre- 
sponding color values. 

Nature drawing, spring flowers, trees, and landscapes, in pencil, brush,, 
ink and color. 

Invention of animal, insect and flower forms for units of decoration. 

Cover design for folio for third term drawings. 



Courses of Study. 125 

First term: SECOND YEAR. 

Principles of perspective. 

Outline drawings of objects in pencil, giving attention to proportions, 
perspective, spacing, quality of line, accent. 

Interiors and exteriors of rooms; drawings of tables, chairs, etc. 
Second term: 

Outline drawing in pencil of groups of common objects. 

Light and shade in soft pencil or charcoal, and if advancement of 
pupils will permit, in sepia. 

Blackboard sketching with chalk and charcoal in three or five values. 

Sketching on blackboard or tinted paper, with chalk and charcoal, 
animals, and the figure after good drawings. 
Third term: 

Study of color from nature. 

Simple landscape compositions in water-color. 

Still life and flower compositions in water-color. 

Charcoal sketches from the pose, finishing with colored crayons. 

Mechanical Drawing. 

First term: '^«^«° Y^^^' 

Geometric problems. Rules to be observed in all mechanical drawing. 
Second term: 

Drawing to scale. 

Working-drawings with tools and free-hand. 

Developments. 

Lettering. 
Third term: 

Projections. 

Mechanical perspective. 

History of Art. 

The following topics are suggestive only. The works of art studied 
will vary according to the facilities of the school. Teachers and students 
should bring to class all the pictures available for the study, remember- 
ing that artists' works are to be the subjects of interest and study. Pic- 
tures at small cost can be procured illustrating a most interesting and 
helpful course. Young People's Story of Art (Whitcomb) is recom- 
mended as an excellent text. 
First term: fourth year. 

Ancient art: 

Egyptian : temples, tombs, pyramids, sphinx, painting. 
Greek: The architecture and sculpture of the Acropolis, Jupiter 
Olympus, Venus de Milo, Apollo Belvedere: painting, Polygno- 
tus, Zeuxis, Parrhasius, Apelles. 
Roman: Orders of architecture, Coliseum, Arch of Titus, painting. 
Second term: 

Ecclesiastical art: 

St. Sophia, St. Marck's, cathedrals of Milan, Cologne, Pisa; Giot- 
to's Tower, St. Peter's; Ghiberti, Angelo's Moses, and David; 
Giotto, Angelico, Botticelli, Angelo, Da Vinci, Raphael, Cor- 
reggio, Titian. 
Third term: 

Velasquez, Murillo, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Hobbema, Ruys- 
dael, Durer, Reynolds, Constable, Landseer, Corot, Millet, Bonheur, 
Rousseau, Burne-Jones, Sargent. American mural decorations by 
leading artists. 

A comprehensive and valuable guide for working out in detail the fore- 
going course is Art Education for High Schools, published by the Prang 
Educational Company, New York and Chicago. 



126 High School 



MUSIC. 

The difference of attainment in individual pupils and the difference in 
amount of grade preparation is so great in music that it is difficult to 
outline a high-school course in music suited to the varied conditions. 
Chorus practice for the entire high school is recommended, for which, as 
well as for outside orchestral and glee-club work, a minor credit might 
be given for graduation. Where regular work is organized for credit 
the following arrangement for a two-year course is suggestive : 

FIRST YEAR. 

One period: 

Monday, elementary harmony. 

Tuesday, sight-singing, ear training and rhythm drill. 
Wednesday, elementary harmony. 
Thursday, chorus practice (entire high school). 

Friday, musical interpretation (song-form, rondo, sonata, symphony,, 
suite, etc.). 

SECOND YEAR. 

One 'period: 

Monday, advanced harmony. 

Tuesday, sight-singing, ear training and rhythm drill. 

Wednesday, advanced harmony. 

Thursday, chorus practice (entire high school). 

Friday, musical history (art itself and lives of composers). 



AGRICULTURE. 

A SECONDARY COURSE IN AGRONOMY.i 

Since your committee four years ago reported on secondary courses' 
in agriculture interest in instruction in courses below college grade has 
continued to increase, and the demand for a definite program for use in 
high schools has become insistent. The committee has considered it wise 
to undertake to meet this important demand. 

In its, former report^ a number of tentative schedules for high-school 
courses were presented to show the place of agriculture in such courses 
and to show that agricultural courses may be offered in the schools with- 
out any violent or radical reorganization of existing programs for such 
schools. The committee dealt with the schedule of the ordinary high 
school, and not that of special agricultural high schools or other forms of 
secondary agricultural schools. In the syllabus and the outline of lec- 
tures, demonstrations, laboratory exercises and recitations which are sub- 
mitted in this report it is assumed that agriculture will be related to the 
high-school course as a whole, as will Latin, algebra, chemistry, physics, 
botany, or any other subject of study. 

The probable and possible teaching force, the facilities for instruction, 
and the exigencies of a high-school schedule have been carefully con- 
sidered. The committee has deemed it more important to outline a course 
of study that can be used by the high schools than to have it at all points 
pedagogically consistent. In preparing this outline the committee has 
availed itself of the services of a graduate of both a scientific and an 

1. Report of the Committee on Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of 
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. 

2. Seventh Report of the Committee on Methods of Teaching Agriculture, U. S.. 
Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Circ. 49. 



Courses of Study. 127 

agricultural course, who has had several years' experience in high- 
school instruction.3 ,. , , J! • J- i.- cl,^„l^ T,a 

The term agriculture as applied to courses of instruction should be 
used to include in a comprehensive way the science and practice of the 
production of plants and animals useful to man and the uses of such 
plants and animals as far as these are closely connected with their pro- 
duction Agriculture may be divided into (1) plant production, (2) ani- 
mal production or zootechny, (3) agrotechny or agricultural technology, 
(4) rural engineering, and (5) rural economics. , , , 

Plant production includes whatever relates to the natural or arti- 
ficial environment [i.e., climate, soil, water, fertilizers, etc.) .of useful 
plants, their structure, composition, physiology, botanical relations, vari- 
eties geographical distribution, culture, harvesting, preservation, and 
uses, and the obstructions to their growth, preservation, or use. Plant 
production may be subdivided into agronomy, which deals with what are 
commonly called field or farm crops; horticulture, which deals with vege- 
tables, fruits, and ornamental plants; and forestry, which deals with 
trees and shrubs grown in large tracts. , .. 4. 4.v, 

Animal production or zootechny includes whatever relates to the 
anatomy, physiology, zoological relations, domestication, types and breeds, 
breeding, feeding, hygiene, management, and uses of useful animals. It 
may also include diseases and other impediments to the production of 
animals, i. e., veterinary medicine. . 

Agrotechny includes whatever relates to the conversion of raw ma- 
terials produced in agriculture into manufactured articles for use in 
commerce and the arts, as far as such manufacture is closely connected 
with agriculture ; e. g., dairying and sugar-making. 

Rural engineering includes those branches of civil and mechanical 
engineering which relate to the locating, arranging and equipment of 
farms and plantations and the construction and operation of implements 
and machinery in agriculture. It embraces such subjects as roads, 
drains, irrigation, farm buildings, etc. 

Rural economics is a somewhat elastic term, but includes at least 
whatever relates to the production, preservation and distribution of 
wealth by the use of land for the growing of plants and animals. It 
may include the development of agriculture as a business (history of 
agriculture) as well as the facts and principles of farm management 
under present conditions. 

In the minds of the committee, agricultural instruction in the high 
school may properly fall into two groups: Group I, agronomy, rural 
engineering, and rural economy; and group II, zootechny and dairying. 
It is recommended that group I, or agronomy, occupy the junior year, 
and group II, or zootechny, occupy the senior year. It is the purpose, 
however, to have the outline of daily exercises suflficiently flexible to make 
it possible for high-school authorities to adapt it to the exigencies of 
their schedules and also to permit emphasis being placed upon the forms 
of the industry most important to the immediate neighborhood of the 
school. Thus, if only one year can be given to the subject, certain exer- 
cises may, be omitted to bring the instruction within the compass of the 
time allowed, and if the main industry is one requiring special emphasis 
being placed upon fertilizers, or irrigation, or upon a particular crop, such 
as cotton, then these subjects will be selected for fullest discussion, al- 
though not necessarily omitting entirely other subjects. 

At this time a report is made upon the subject of agronomy, it being 
the purpose of the committee to make a similar report upon zootechny 
later. Strictly speaking, agronomy deals only with the theory and prac- 
tice of the production of farm crops, including the study of climate, soils, 
fertilizers, and other matters closely related to crop production. In this 
report, however, the committee has thought it best to include a few lessons 

3. Dr. G. P. Warren, assistant professor of agronomy, Cornell University. 



128 High School 

on horticulture and forestry in cases where publications and illustrative 
material are available for such study. This is done with a view of en- 
couraging some attention to the growing of vegetables and fruits, the 
eradication of insect pests and diseases of plants, and the management 
of the wood-lot on the ordinary farm. It is hoped and expected that in 
the near future the committee will be able to offer suggestions for more 
extended secondary courses in both horticulture and forestry. The course 
of study outlined in this circular is based upon the assumption that the 
study of agriculture will be preceded by botany, physiology, and, if pos- 
sible, chemistry, and that the text-books used or the class of subjects dis- 
cussed under each science will be those most important to a clear under- 
standing of agronomical teaching. 

SYLLABUS ON AGRONOMY FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION. 

The following syllabus has been prepared not only to give the teacher 
the limits of the subject to be taught, but to present the point of view 
from which the subject should be taught. A Japanese scholar, while 
speaking before an American audience recently, remarked: "I noticed 
one very marked difference in the agriculture of Europe and America 
from that of Japan. In Europe and America you work the soil ; in Japan 
we are interested in growing crops." This syllabus has been prepared 
from the Japanese point of view, namely, that the aim in agronomy is the 
production of plants useful to mankind, a definition this committee gave 
to agronomy in its third report in 1898. 

In this syllabus emphasis is not placed upon soil, tillage, drainage and 
irrigation as such, but upon the relation of soil, tillage, drainage and 
irrigation to the environment of the plant, namely, to light, heat, mois- 
ture, air, plant-food, and repressive agencies. The special providence of 
the agronomist is to consider how soil, tillage, drainage, irrigation and 
the various cultural methods of the farmer may modify the environment 
and thus increase the crop, and, so far as man may modify the environ- 
ment, how it may be accomplished economically. No less important is the 
influence of heredity in the production of crops and the practical methods 
by which plants may be improved. 

To what extent the teaching will be confined to a consideration of 
man's influence in making use of fundamental laws and how much time 
will be employed in stating fundamental laws must depend upon the 
thoroughness with which the student has studied botany, physiology, and 
chemistry. 

In' any case the application of these fundamental laws must be made. 
For example, if the students have had chemistry, the teacher must spend 
some time in considering the function and relation of the fourteen ele- 
ments chiefly concerned in the production of soil, air, plants, and animals. 
If, however, the students have not had any chemistry, it will be necessary 
in addition to spend some time in teaching the students the alphabet of 
chemistry. From the syllabus it will be seen that the plant may be 
studied from the standpoint of its composition, structure, physiology (ac- 
tivities) , heredity, and environment. Since a plant is the result of two 
forces, its heredity power and its environment, general consideration is 
first given to the methods of plant improvement and to those cultural 
methods by which the plant's environment is modified. Following these 
general considerations each individual crop may be studied from the 
standpoint of its structure, its composition, its physiology or activities, 
its heredity or improvement, its environment or cultural methods, and, 
finally, its economical use and disposal. The number and kind of crops to 
be studied will vary with the time at the disposal of the teacher and, to 
some extent at least, with the character of the local agricultural indus- 
tries. The syllabus outlines an illustration of the order and possible 
topics for discussion, leaving it to the teacher to select those that may be 
best employed. It is not expected that any high school will be able to 
teach all the topics here mentioned. 



Courses of Study. 



129 



1. The plant, how studied: 

1. Composition. 

2. Structure. 

3. Physiology. 

4. Heredity. 

5. Environment. 

2. Composition: 

1. Essential elements. 

2. Function of elements. 

3. Water. 

4. Ash. 

5. Protein. 

6. Carbohydrates. 

1. Cellulose. 

2. Starch. 

3. Sugars. 

7. Fat. 

3. Structure: 

1. Cells. 

2. Roots. 

3. Stems. 

4. Leaves. ~^~ 

5. Inflorescence. 

4. Physiology. 

1. The plant activities. 

2. The processes of growth. 

3. Irritability. 

4. The kinds of propagation. 

5. Propagation by seeds. 

6. Propagation by buds. 

5. Heredity: 

1. Principles. 

2. Processes. 

3. Steps in improvement of 

plants. 

1. Variation. 

1. Environment. 

2. Crossing. 

2. Selection. 

3. Testing hereditary 

power. 

4. Illustrations of improve- 

ment in plants. 

5. Methods of improvement. 

6. Environment: 

1. Light. 

2. Heat. 

3. Moisture. 

4. Air. 

5. Plant-food. 

6. Repressive agencies. 

7. Light and heat: 

1. Relative interdependence. 

2. Effect. 

3. Influence of character of 

light. 

-9 



Syllabus. 

7. Light and heat — continued: 



4. Influence of seasons. 

5. Temperature for germina- 

tion and growth. 

6. How modified. 

1. Color. 

2. Evaporation. 

3. Topography. 

4. Character of soil. 

5. Cultivation. 

6. Drainage. 

7. Rolling. 

8. Thickness of planting. 

9. Fermentation. 
10. Artificial means. 

1. Screens. 

2. Electricity. 

3. Artificial heat. 

8. Moisture: 

1. Purpose. 

2. Importance. 

3. Quantity required. 

4. How modified. 

1. Kind of soil. 

2. Topography. 

3. Fertilizers and other 

amendments. 

4. Cultivation. 

5. Drainage and irriga- 

tion. 

9. Air: 

1. Function above ground. 

1. Oxygen. 

2. Carbon dioxid. 

2. Function in soils. 

1. Oxygen. 

2. Nitrogen. 

3. Removal of carbon di- 

oxid. 

3. Processes of soil ventilation. 

1. By diffusion. 

2. By expansion and con- 

traction of air due to 
temperature. 

3. By expansion and com- 

pression due to bar- 
ometric pressure. 

4. Suctional effect of gusts 

of wind. 

5. Air absorbed by rain- 

water. 

6. By removal of water, 

through drainage, 
evaporation, and 
transpiration of 
plants. 



130 



High School 



10. Plant food: 

1. Elements needed. 

1. Function. 

2. Sources. 

1. Air. 

2. Soil. 

3. Fertilizers. 

11. Soil: 

1. Functions. 

2. Properties. 

3. Kinds. 

4. As a source of plant-food. 

1. Importance compared 

with other sources. 

2. How modified. 

1. Kind of soil. 

2. Topography (ero- 

sion). 

3. Tillage. 

4. Drainage and irri- 

gation. 

5. Fertilizers. 

6. Systems of crop- 

ping. 

12. Kinds of soil. 

13. Topography. 

14. Tillage: 

1. Purpose and effects. 

2. Methods. 

15. Drainage: 

1. Purpose and effects. 

2. Methods. 

16. Irrigation: 

1. Purpose and effects. 

2. Methods. 

17. Fertilizers: 

1. According to constituents. 

1. Nitrogenous. 

2. Phosphoric. 

3. Potassic. 

4. Other amendments. 

2. According to form. 

1. Farm manures. 

1. Green manures. 

2. Animal manures. 

2. Commercial fertilizers. 

18. Farm manures: 

1. Properties. 

2. Sources. 

3. Uses. 

4. Preparation, care, and han- 

dling. 

5. Application. 

6. Economy. 



19. Commercial fertilizers: 

1. Sources. 

2. Uses. 

3. Application. 

4. Economy. 

20. Nitrogen: 

1. Source. 

2. Fixation of free nitrogen, 

1. With certain plants. 

2. Without plants. 

3. Organisms. 

4. Cause of tubercles. 

5. Effect of organisms. 

6. Influence of conditions. 

3. Nitrification. 

4. Denitrification. 

5. Loss through drainage. 

21. Repressive agencies. 

1. Insects and other animals. 

2. Diseases. 

3. Weeds. 

4. Unfavorable weather. 

5. Acidity and alkalinity of 

soil. 

6. Toxic agencies. 

22. Rotation of crops: 

1. Principles. 

2. Systems. 

23. Classification of economic 

plants : 

1. Cereals. 

2. Grasses. 

3. Legumes. 

4. Vegetables. 

5. Fruits. 

6. Tubers. 
7,. Roots. 

8. Sugar plants. 

9. Oil plants. 

10. Fiber plants. 

11. Stimulants. 

12. Medicinal and aromatic 

plants. 

24. Cereals: 

1. Wheat. 

2. Indian corn (maize) . 

3. Oats. 

4. Barley. 

5. Rye. 

6. Rice. 

7. Sorghum. 

8. Buckwheat. 

(Other groups of plants may 
be classified in like manner.) 

25. As many individual crops may 

be treated as time will per- 
mit. 



Courses of Study. 131 

An outline of topics on wheat is submitted, which is believed to be 
much too complete for secondary instruction, but may be readily modihed 
to suit the character of instruction required. 

A. Structure: ^H^^' 

1. Relationships; 2, roots; 3, culms; 4, leaves; 5, tillering; 6, or- 
gans of reproduction; 7, the true flower; 8, the spikelet; 9, 
the spike; 10, the grain; 11, the embryo; 12, the endosperm; 
13, the aleurone layer; 14, the bran; 15, physical properties. 

B. Composition: 

1. Composition; 2, water; 3, ash; 4, protein; 5, gluten; 6, relation 
of weight per bushel to nitrogen content; 7, influence of en- 
vironment on composition of grain; 8, germination. 

C. Botanical relations : 

1. Species of wheat; 2, Einkorn; 3, spelt; 4, emmer; 5, common 
wheat; 6, club, or square-head wheat; 7, Poulard wheat; 8, 
durum wheat; 9, Polish wheat; 10, spring and winter wheats. 

D. Classification of varieties : 

1. The importance of variety; 2, the best variety; 3, variety names; 
4, pedigree wheat; 5, number of varieties; 6, variety charac- 
teristics; 7, variety groups; 8, desirable qualities; 9, score- 
card; 10, market classification; 11, soft winter varieties; 12, 
hard winter varieties; 13, hard spring varieties; 14, white 
varieties. 

E. Improvement of varieties: 

1. New varieties; 2, the introduction of foreign varieties; 3, im- 
provement by selection; 4, varieties through crossing; 5, the 
possibility of cross-fertilization; 6, the law of cross-fertiliza- 
tion; 7, importance of crossing as a method of improvement; 
8, method of finding and testing new strains or varieties. 

F. Climate: 

1. Conditions of successful wheat culture; 2, effect of climate upon 
geographical distribution; 3, effect of climate upon quality; 4, 
effect of climate upon growth; 5, accumulation of soil con- 
stituents at different stages of growth; 6, winter-killing. 

G. The soil and its amendments : 

1. The choice of soil; 2, effect of change of soil on yield; 3, the use 
of fertilizers; 4, indirect fertilization; 5, rotations; 6, carriers 
of fertilizing constituents; 7, relative importance of fertilizing 
constituents; 8, amount of fertilizers; 9, time and manner of 
applying commercial fertilizers; 10, farm manure; 11, mulch- 
ing. 
H. Cultural methods: 

1. Time of plowing; 2, depth of plowing; 3, preparing seed-bed 
without plowing; 4, time of sowing; 5, depth of sowing; 6, 
drilling compared with broadcasting; 7, quantity of seed per 
acre; 8, influence of size of seed; 9, treatment of seed; 10, 
wheat-seeding machinery; 11, cultivation; 12, rolling. 

I. Weeds, fungus diseases, and insect enemies: 

1. Weeds: (a) chess or cheat; (&) darnel; (c) cockle; (d) wild 
garlic; (e) wheat-thief; 2, fungus diseases: (a) rust; (6) 
wheat-scab; (c) loose smut; (d) stinking smut; 3, insect ene- 
mies of growing wheat: (a) chinch-bug; (6) Hessian fly; 
(c) wheat joint-worm; (d) wheat-midge; (e) grain aphides; 
(/) army-worm; (g) grasshoppers. 



132 High School 

J. Harvesting and preservation: 

1. Date of harvesting; 2, influence of maturity on yield; 3, in- 
fluence of ripening upon composition; 4, influence of shock- 
ing; 5, method of shocking; 6, methods of harvesting; 7, self- 
rake reaper; 8, the self -binding harvester; 9, the header; 10, 
the combined harvester and thrasher; 11, thrashing; 12, stor- 
ing; 13, elevators. 

K. Uses and preparation for use : 

1. Uses; 2, food for domestic animals; 3, source, amount and quality 
of flour; 4, grades of flour; 5, Graham and entire-wheat flour; 
6, amount of bread from flour; 7, milling machinery; 8, 
purifier; 9, the by-products of wheat; 10, composition of by- 
products; 11, food value of by-products. 

L. Production and marketing : 

1. Wheat crop of the world; 2, wheat crop of the United States; 
3, progress of wheat production; 4, center of wheat produc- 
tion; 5, winter wheat and spring wheat; 6, production of 
flour; 7, consumption of wheat per capita; 8, yield per acre; 
9, cost of production; 10, export of wheat and flour; 11, im- 
ports of wheat; 12, commercial grades. 

M. History: 

1. Antiquity; 2, original habitat; 3, reasons for culture. 

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

Since this is a new subject for high-school work it seems desirable to 
give detailed suggestions on a few subjects for study. These directions 
and questions are not intended to be mandatory, but are intended to help 
teachers who are giving this work for the first time. This work does not 
cover the entire syllabus. When the schools and teachers become better 
equipped the work may be extended. In preparing these lessons first 
attention has been given to the question as to whether bulletins and 
other material could readily be secured. Some topics of prime impor- 
tance have been omitted because there are no bulletins that can be secured 
to supply the entire class for study, while topics of less importance have 
been included because good bulletins are available. The lessons are to 
aid in doing work under present conditions and are not intended to repre- 
sent an ideal high-school course. 

The study of agriculture gives the same sort of educational develop- 
ment as is given by the study of botany, physiology, physics, chemistry, 
and other sciences. From the unlimited number of subjects for scientific 
study it selects those which concern the plants and animals that are used 
on the farm. Each school should select for study the subjects that are of 
greatest importance in the community. 

Since agriculture is based on so many sciences it is desirable that it 
follow the study of the other sciences that are taught in the school, par- 
ticularly botany and chemistry. If a school cannot teach chemistry it 
will be possible to give about two-thirds of the lessons outlined. But it is 
extremely desirable that chemistry be taught preceding the agriculture. 
It should be taught by the laboratory method. No work in high-school 
agriculture should be attempted unless the school teaches botany. Those 
who wish to teach agriculture before they teach botany should use Office 
of Experiment Stations Bulletin 186, Exercises in Elementary Agricul- 
ture — Plant Production. Many of the exercises in that bulletin can also 
he used in high-school work. 

The student should thoroughly understand plant-cells, from a micro- 
scopical study of them; the embryo and its growth; tests for starch and 
proteids; the process of osmosis and the function of roots; the structure 
of stomata and use that the plant makes of oxygen and carbon dioxid; 



Courses of Study. 133 

the formation of starch, its transfer through the stem, and its deposit as 
stored food in seeds and tubers; the process of fertilization; the nature 
of a fungus disease, from a microscopical study of bread mold or other 
fungus. 

All other science work that is taught will help in agriculture. The 
subjects under physiology that are of most value as a preparation for 
agriculture are: Respiration; the kinds of foods, their digestion, and the 
part that each plays in keeping up the body ; bacteria and sanitation. If 
physical geography or geology is taught, the subjects of most value in 
preparing for agriculture are: The air, the weather, and the formation 
of soils. If zoology is taught, the work on insects will be of most value 
in preparing for the following lessons. 

The teacher who gives the elementary agriculture should have a good 
knowledge of elementary botany and chemistry, and it is very desirable 
that he have some knowledge of physics, zoology and geology. It is also 
desirable that the teacher be a man who has had some farm experience 
or who has studied some agriculture. 

REQUIRED FREE REFERENCES. 

Write to each of the following addresses, stating that you wish the 
publication mentioned for your high-school library and in your class in 
agriculture. If the teacher finds that he desires any of these for his 
private library, he should write for additional copies. The set in the 
high-school library should be kept complete for future classes. On re- 
ceipt of these the loose bulletins should be bound, or they may be punched 
and tied together with strings, and manila paper may be used for covers. 
These should be put in some place where pupils will have free access to 
them. 

(1) Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, : Ask to have the 
school placed on the mailing-list for the Monthly List of Publications, 
and to be sent the following: One set of Farmers' Bulletins suitable to 
the locality; one copy of the List of Publications for Free Distribution; 
one copy of the List of Bulletins for Sale; one copy of each of the re- 
prints of the areas that have been surveyed by the Bureau of Soils in 
your state. Also ask for as many copies of "Separates from the Year- 
book," Nos. 83, 124, 159, 279, 310 and 329, as there are students in the 
class. ^ One copy of this circular and of Office of Experiment Stations 
Bulletin 186 for each student will be convenient for some of the exercises. 
Also look over the list of recitations where pupils are to study Farmers' 
Bulletins. Make a list of these bulletins that you expect to use, and send 
for as many copies as there are students in the class. Where directions 
are given to "study and recite" on bulletins or extracts, it is expected 
that the teacher give out a copy to each pupil at the time when the lesson 
is assigned. 

(2) Write to your congressman for such copies of the Yearbook of 
the Department of Agriculture as he may have for distribution, stating 
that they are for your high-school library. 

(3) Write to your State Experiment Station for copies of available 
bulletins and reports, and ask to be placed on the mailing-list. 

(4) Write to the State Board of Agriculture and other agricultural 
societies for publications that they have for distribution. 

(5) Copies of farm papers and country-life magazines are desirable 
for the high-school reading-table. 

BOOK REFERENCES. 

No references other than the above are absolutely necessary, but it is 
very desirable to have on the reference table one copy of as many of the 
followmg books as possible. At least half of these ought to be secured. 
If a cyclopedia of agriculture can be afforded it will be of much value. 
Several copies of each of the first four books will be desirable if the 



134 High School 

class numbers over half a dozen; also of the fifth book in regions where 
fertilizers are much used: 

1. Physics of Agriculture, King. 

2. Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, Snyder. 

3. Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Hunt. 

4. Cereals in America, Hunt. 

5. Fertilizers, Voorhees. 

6. Experiments with Plants, Osterhout. 

7. The Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey. 

8. The Fertility of the Land, Roberts. 

9. The Farmstead, Roberts. 

10. The Horticulturist's Rule Book, Bailey. 

11. Corn Plants, Sargent. 

12. The Practical Garden Book, Bailey. 

13. The Soil, King. 

14. Irrigation and Drainage, King. 
The following are more elementary books : 

15. Soils and How to Treat Them, Brooks. 

16. Manures, Fertilizers, and Farm Crops, Brooks. 

17. Principles of Agriculture, Bailey. 

18. Agriculture for Beginners, Burkett, Stevens, and Hill. 

19. First Principles of Agriculture, Goff and Mayne. 

20. Elementary Agriculture, Bessey and others. 

21. Agriculture through the Laboratory and School Garden, Jackson 

and Daugherty. 

22. First Book of Farming, Goodrich. 

EQUIPMENT. 

It is desirable that the high school be equipped for regular laboratory 
work in botany, chemistry, and physics. If not so equipped, the follow- 
ing equipment is suggested for a class of ten in agriculture : 

2 compound microscopes magnifying to 500 diameters; cost, about $18. 

2 balances for weighing to centigrams. 

Spring balance. 

1 dozen pint fruit- jars. 

1 dozen quart fruit- jars. 

4 dozen test-tubes. 

J dozen beakers (drinking glasses may be substituted). 

1 dozen 4-inch size flower-pots with saucers; 1 dozen 6-inch flower- 
pots with saucers (tin cans and boxes may be substituted). 

1 gasoline burner (a stove or laboratory burners are as good). 
6 porcelain crucibles (iron spoons may be substituted) . 

2 thermometers. 

Small magnifying glasses, magnifying 10 diameters. 

1 "school set of economic seeds." These may be obtained at a nominal 
expense by writing to the Seed Laboratory, United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Other equipment required can be brought from home by students when 
it is needed. 

It is essential that there be at least two windows at which plants may 
be kept growing for experimental purposes. 

Whenever possible, it is desirable that several acres of land be avail- 
able for school use. Those who are laying out new school grounds will 
do well to keep this in mind. 

COLLECTION OP MATERIAL. 

About one bushel each of sand, such as is used in plastering, sandy 
loam soil and clay should be collected. Similarly collect about three 
quarts of leaf mold (well-rotted leaves) . Also collect about four quarts 
of soil and subsoil from the same spot. All these should be put in the 
basement, where they will become air-dry for future class use. It is also 



Courses op Study. 135 

desirable to have several bushels of good rich soil for use in growing 
house plants. Unless it is very rich, about one-fourth stable manure 
should be mixed with it. . n . ^ ■, 

Collect samples of the common diseases and msects for class suudy. 
Any of the following diseases or others that occur in the neighborhood: 
Potato-scab, apple-scab, wheat-rust, oat-smut, brown rot of peaches and 
plumbs, blak-knot, apple-canker, corn-smut. 

Fill two one-quart jars with pure rain-water for use in No. 22, unless 
you can distill water. 

The following samples of fertilizers for exercise may be secured from 
a local dealer, or students may be able to bring them in, or they may be 
secured from the manufacturers. Secure the guaranty analysis and 
price of each sample. Get about one pint each of nitrate of soda or other 
form of nitrogen, muriate of potash or other form of potash, acid phos- 
phate or other form of phosphoric acid, and at least two samples of com- 
plete fertilizers. 

NOTE-BOOKS. 

Each student should keep a note-book, in which all field trips, demon- 
strations and laboratory work should be written up, giving date, subject 
of the exercise, materials used, full description of how the work was 
done, drawings, all data secured, solution of problems, answers to ques- 
tions that follow the demonstration and laboratory work or to similar 
questions prepared by the teacher. This should all be given in complete 
form in good English, not in detached sentences. This really amounts to 
a discussion or essay on the subject, in which drawings, problems and 
answers to questions are included. 

Many of the demonstrations are of such a nature that they may be 
assigned to some student in the class, who will take entire charge of the 
preparation and management of the experiment. This may not very 
greatly reduce the work of the teacher, but it will be of much value to 
the students. The note-book discussion of demonstrations should state 
who did the work. 

TIME REQUIRED. 

The work here outlined is expected to be sufficient for one year. It 
can readily be adapted to half this amount of time by omitting exercises. 
It is desirable that there be three recitations a week and two double 
periods for laboratory work, field-work, and demonstrations. When a 
field lesson is given, it is desirable that it be the last work of the day, 
so that it need not be finished at any scheduled time. The demonstration 
work may often be given in recitation periods. The figure in parentheses 
following the number of the exercise indicates the relative time that it is 
thought desirable to devote to the subject. More than this number of 
periods can be given to each topic and still complete the work in a year. 
This will give an opportunity to devote more time to those lessons that 
are of particular interest in the community. By securing the bulletins 
from the State Experiment Station, a study may be made of the agri- 
culture of the state. 

OUTLINE OF LECTURES, RECITATIONS, DEMONSTRATION AND LABORATORY 
WORK FOR SECONDARY INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY. 

I (2) Recitation. What is agriculture? Agronomy? 

The teacher may give a talk on this subject, showing how agriculture 
rests on many sciences and the things with which agriculture deals. 
(See syllabus.) Then, taking up agronomy, call attention to the ways in 
which plants may be studied: 1, composition; 2, structure; 3, physiology; 
4, heredity; and 5, environment. 

High-school botany, as taught at present, deals chiefly with structure 
and physiology. We will now take up the study of plants in all five 
ways, but will give most attention to environment and heredity. Little 
can be given on composition without a knowledge of chemistry. 



136 



High School 



When studying about light, heat, air, moisture, soils, tillage, drainage, 
etc., always keep in mind that these are not being studied as independent 
subjects, but are studied because they are important factors in the plant's 
environment. 

II (2) Field Lesson. Variation in plants. 

Materials. — A field of corn ; tape measure. 

If there is danger that there will be no corn convenient, the teacher 
can get some one to leave a dozen hills or more iincut for this study, or a 
similar study may be given on another crop. The lesson may be given at 
any time during the fall. Each pupil to bring a tape measure from 
home. It is best to have the measurements made on different rows to 
secure independent work. Each pupil to work on ten hills, or ten stalks, 
if drilled or listed. 



Number of hills, . 

Number of stalks per hill, 

Number of suckers, 

Number of ears, . 



Number of hills missing, 

Total stalks, . 

Number of barren stalks. 
Average ears per stalk, — 





1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


8. 


9. 


10. 





























































































































































Suckers are side branches that come out from a stalk usually near the 
ground. The shank is the stem that holds the ear. Direction of the 
ear is horizontal or pointed upward or dawnward. A long, slender 
shank usually allows the ear to point downward. If it points upward, 
water is more likely to go into the ear and cause it to rot if left standing 
in the field. The husks may be pulled back to measure the ear. Notice 
the very great variation in each character. Why is this so? There must 
be a difference in the strength of different plants — an individuality. 
From which would we select seed? Find a stalk and ear that you think 
would be a good one to save for seed. It should not be good merely be- 
cause it had more room to grow, but be good under the usual conditions. 
What uncertainty about its being good? Notice that pollen may have 
come from a poor stalk. 

III (2) Recitation. Selection of seed corn. 

Study and recite on the above and on Farmers' Bulletin No. 229. 

IV (1) Field Lesson. Variation in potatoes. 

Materials. — Spring balance, pail, spading fork or potato hook. 
Dig twenty or more hills of potatoes. Weigh and count the large 
(marketable size) and small potatoes. 



Courses of Study. 



137 





Large. 


Small. 


Hill. 


Number. 


Weight. 


Number. 


Weight. 


1 










2 










Etc. 











Notice the variation in individual hills. Which hill would be the most 
desirable for seed? If all the large potatoes were used for seed, would 
you have only the good plants represented? Some boy will probably 
volunteer to do this work and report his results to the class. 

V (3) Recitation. Plant-breeding. 

Read and recite on Separate No. 83, Yearbook 1896 (Influence of 
Environment on the Origination of Plant Varieties) ; also have the pupils 
look over and read parts of Separates Nos. 124, Yearbook 1897 (Hybrids 
and their Utilization in Plant Breeding), and 159, Yearbook 1898 (Im- 
provement in Plants by Selection) . 

The following points need to be brought out: The great variation in 
plants; any change in environment increases the variation; possibilities 
of improving cultivated varieties by selection; how hybrids are made; 
great variations thus caused; these variations may be desirable or other- 
wise; they furnish opportunity for selection; in selecting seed the entire 
plant should be considered, not a single potato, but the best hill; if 
selected from a pile, a good-looking potato might have been the only good 
one in the hill. What would be a good way to select tomato seed? Corn 
seed? (Cereals in America, pages 14-26.) 

This outline, with sample lessons, is taken from Circular 77, which 
every teacher is urged to obtain by writing to the Office of Experiment 
Stations, Washington, D. C. 



138 High School 



Group IX. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS. One-half unit. 

T T 4. J 4.- SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 

I. Introduction. 

Definition. Relation to method. School law the basis. Teach- 
ers' experience the guide. 

II. The school. 

Laws organizing and controlling the school. 
Kinds of schools provided for. 

III. The teacher. 

Who should enter the work; physical requirements; tempera- 
mental and personal requirements; educational require- 
ments (branches of study, arts, industries). 
Sources of educational equipment. 
Common schools; limitations. 

Normal institutes; law organizing and controlling; county 
superintendent's relation to same; who may conduct or 
teach. 
Normal schools. 

Where located; purposes of their organization; courses 
of study offered. 
Other state schools and colleges. 
Certificates. 

Laws controlling their issue; kinds of certificates, sources; 
county superintendent; county high-school diploma; 
normal school "one-year," "three-year," and "life" cer- 
tificates; university and college diplomas; examinations, 
when and where; validating certificates in other counties 
than those issuing same. 
Duties of teacher. 

Legal; as to school board, school property, keeping records, 

making reports, control of pupils. 
Classification of pupils; basis of, how lessen number of 

classes, daily program. 
Following course of study. 
Relation to county superintendent. 
Attending associations. 
Reading-circle work. 

Opportunities and duties as a member of the community. 
How to keep growing. 

Private study, general reading, summer schools, the 
year off, district and state association meetings. 

IV. The patrons. 

Their proper attitude toward their school. 

School meeting; what patrons can do at school meeting. 

Attitude towards punctuality, compulsory attendance law, 

tardiness, discipline. 
Feeding, clothing, and care of child attending school; amount 

of labor they should be required to do; school lunches; 

school dress and shoes; sleep; conditions for home study 

and reading. 



Courses of Study. 139 

IV. The patrons — continued: 

Home criticism of school and teacher. 

Visiting the school, inviting the teacher to visit the homes. 

Liberality of views and interest in children's progress. 

Assisting in discipline. 

Parties and evening entertainments. 

V. The children. 

Age at which they may enter kindergarten; primary school. 

Individual differences as to health, condition of eyes, ears, 
touch, taste, smell, motor ability, temperament, _ fatigue, 
nutrition, nervousness, acquired habits, disposition, ado- 
lescence. 

Condition of the schoolhouse as to ventilation, light, heat, desks, 
cleanness, cheerfulness, decoration. 

School grounds, portions set aside for games, for garden, orna- 
mentation of grounds. 

Games suitable for out-door athletics. Toilet accommodations. 
Defacing property. 

VL Teaching. 

(The course in methods treats of this phase of management 

more specifically.) 
Classification. 

The state course of study; grading; promotions; reports to 
parents; study, how to do it; supervision; helping pupils 
get their lessons; home assistance; written work; draw- 
ing; music; special programs; social forms; morals; 
physiology and hygiene; social occupations, manual work, 
sewing, cooking, gardening, etc. 

VII. Discipline. 

The ideal school; attitude of teacher toward pupils; how much 
governing is necessary; suggestion; imitation; self-govern- 
ment by pupils; inculcating good habits; power of mutual 
acquaintance; governing through interest in the school and 
its work; making rules and regulations; punishment; assist- 
ance from parents. 

METHOD IN TEACHING. 

1. Aims in education. 

General aims; special aims. 

2. Scope of method. 

How educational changes are to be brought about. 
Impression and expression, or stimulus and response. 
The stimuli classified; responses classified. 

3. The scientific basis of teaching. 

Physiology and hygiene; psychology; ethics; sociology; biology. 
Not all of these sciences, but some parts of each. 

4. The instincts and capacities of children. 

Instincts defined; instincts most important in education; general 
capacities; special capacities. 
B. Self-activity. 

Meaning of term; its importance; its relation to good teaching. 
■6. Apperception. 

Meaning; a law of teaching; its application. 

7. Interests. 

Meaning of interests; direct and indirect; value of permanent 
interests; use of indirect interests in learning; how to secure 
interest; no accomplishment without interest; what interests 
are best. 



140 High School 

8. Individual differences in children. 

How great; how to treat slow, dull children; how to treat pre- 
cocious children. 

9. Attention. , , ,, • 

Nature of; how important; how secured; how held; improper 
methods of securing. 

10. Habit formation. 

Law of habit ; the application of the law to teachmg. 

11. Memory. . 

How we remember; best kinds of memory; how to acquire habits 
of memorizing; how to train children's memories; value of 
memory. 

12. Correlation. 

Meaning of term; how to apply it to teaching; avoid trivial or 
unnatural correlations. 

13. The individual and the general notion. 

The individual notions defined; sources of individual notions; 
general notions defined; origin and growth of general notions; 
difficulty of getting accurate general notions; distinguishing 
marks of individual and general notions; relationship between 
them; the value of general notions; which should precede; 
how to acquire individual notions; the use of apperception; 
stating the aim; the first or preparatory step. 

14. Presentation. 

Ways of presenting new matter ; lecture ; text-book ; development ; 
limitations of each method; necessity for vivid imagery; value 
of reviews. 

15. The step of comparison and abstraction. 

Meaning of terms; how this step is made. 

16. Generalization. 

Need of good statement made by pupil. 

17. Application. 

When shall the application of general notions be acquired; how 
can the school provide for application; application deductive; 
reviews as a form of application; reasoning as a form of ap- 
plication. 

18. Type lessons. 

19. Education and conduct. 

The elements of good character; the limitations of the schools in 
the realm of moral training; the application of the law of 
habit to moral training; the law of suggestion and its appli- 
cation to moral teaching; discussing wrong acts before chil- 
dren; the opportunities the school offers for moral action; the 
value of specific moral instruction ; the moral judgment ; moral 
effects of school studies; semi-moral habits. 

20. Emotional responses. 

Their likeness to responses of thought and action; instincts of 
emotional response ; habits of emotional response ; the aesthetic 
emotions. 

21. Motor education. 

Kinds of motor responses possible; their value; their training. 



Courses of Study. 141 



PSYCHOLOGY. One-half unit. 

Psychology is fundamental in the theory and practice of education. 
It is therefore properly included in this Normal course of study. The 
teacher should understand the laws of mental activity, how the mind de- 
velops, and when the different powers appear. 

In beginning a course in the study of psychology it is well for teacher 
and students to note some of the special difficulties of the subject. One 
of the chief of these lies in its very^ nature. It is a new field to the stu- 
dent — almost like entering a new world, in fact. Heretofore life and 
thought have been objective. The young person has been taken up with 
the sights and sounds, the world of things. Now he must practice ob- 
serving the working of his own mind, a process technically called intro- 
spection. 

No one ever learned psychology from a text-book. However helpful a 
good text is in directing the thought in a systematic way, it will avail 
little if the student fails to refer at every point for verification to his 
own mind. 

There is need of making the subject as concrete as possible by illus- 
tration and simple experiment. The teacher should insist on pupils 
drawing their illustrations from their own experience rather than using 
those given by the text. Progress also will be slow until the student 
gains some mastery of the special vocabulary of the subject. The tech- 
nical meaning of sensation, perception, concept, judgment, and many 
others, must be acquired. It will not do for the teacher to assume that 
the members of the class understand these new and more or less abstract 
terms. 

During the whole course of this study seek at every point to develop 
the idea of the unitary character of the mind. The mind acts as a 
whole, though sometimes one phase happens to be emphasized, then an- 
other. At such times we say that we are perceiving, remembering, or rea- 
soning, as the case may be. For purposes of study, indeed, we may single 
out a certain process, but all are interrelated and represented in every 
other. These correlations should be constantly held in mind. As an in- 
stance of this take apperception, which may profitably come in for con- 
sideration when dealing with perception, attention, interest, memory and 
volitional action. 

Before dropping a chapter the pedagogical applications should be 
dwelt upon. A fault with much teaching of psychology is that it is con- 
sidered purely in its scientific aspects. Even so it may be made an in- 
tensely interesting subject to young people by a skillful teacher, but when 
a prospective teacher sees how it is going to help him in a practical way 
it will put a new light upon it. 

As a preparation the student should have some knowledge of the physi- 
ology of the nervous system. Otherwise, any discussion of the relation 
of mind and body, of evidence that the brain is the organ of the mind, 
will be vague. From' the beginning there should be insistence on the 
dynamic or active character of consciousness. The mind manifests itself 
in the ways we call perceiving, remembering, judging, etc. It is the sum 
of all these processes. There should be brought out the close relations of 
mind and body with evidence that the mind may influence the body and 
the body the mind. 

All phases of psychology are not of equal importance from a peda- 
gogical standpoint. There is needed, therefore, a proper perspective on 
the part of the teacher, that the right emphasis be given. Difficult topics, 
such as the psychophysic law, and disputed questions like the existence 
of pain nerves, may be either omitted entirely or touched lightly. On 
the other hand, without minimizing the value of some topics, it is cer- 
tainly correct pedagogy to stress others. 



142 High School 

Under sensation and perception bring out the part that sense experi- 
ence plays in the development of the child and the need of large oppor- 
tunity for the acquisition of sense material. Training in careful habits 
of observation will result in usuable memory-images, whereas the lack of 
clear-cut perceptions seems to result in hampering mental efficiency all 
one's days. 

Give large place to the study of attention and its relation to other 
mental processes. Note that the key to an understanding of attention, 
and apperception also, is found in the study of the natural and acquired 
tendencies of the nervous system. The focal character of attention and 
the fact that it is a question of more or less consciousness can be easily 
brought out by simple illustrations. Children are never really inattentive. 
The teacher's problem lies in securing their attention to the right things, 
in gaining for the relatively uninteresting ideas of the school subjects a 
proportionate share of the child's conscious energy in competition with 
the large mass of ideas instinctively appealing to him. In the early years 
only passive attention is possible. It is unnatural for the child to hold to 
lonof-continued tasks, and the teacher will show his art in graduating the 
burden to the increasing power of the child. Bring out the relation of 
attention to will. When children are trained to do the tasks of the school- 
room, we say, and rightly, that their wills are_ being developed, but this 
manifests itself as an increase of power to give active attention. The 
school, perhaps even more than the home, furnishes the means for train- 
ing the will, for giving the ability to make a sustained effort. This, of 
course, is the larger part of its function. Perhaps as important as any- 
thing in psychology is a right view of the will or action side of con- 
sciousness. Consciousness is a motor. All ideas tend to result in action. 
In the young child action on impulse is the type, but out of his sense ex- 
perience, and as a result of the trial and error method of learning, inhi- 
bition, self-control and power of direction are acquired. 

In dealing with the concept, judgment and reasoning it seems best to 
begin with the relatively simple cases of sense-discrimination and asso- 
ciational reasoning characteristic of animals and young children. Show 
also that while human thought progresses by a sort of inductive-deductive 
combination, induction in the teaching of children should receive far more 
attention than it has in the past, as representing more nearly the way the 
mind of the child works in contact with his objective world. 

Perhaps, for the outlook it gives, more time and attention should be 
devoted to insuring an adequate knowledge of instinct than any other 
branch. of the subject. Life, and especially child life, is largely lived on 
the level of instinct. In great measure, the child in his development does 
repeat the history of the race. He has many instincts and natural in- 
terests which may be made useful in his development. The collecting or 
acquisitive impulse is one of these. The possibilities of play in educa- , 
tion are far greater than are dreamed of by the uninstructed. There 
are a host of social instincts, such as imitation and suggestion, the ac- 
quiring of language, the gang instinct, rivalry, etc., which must be reck- 
oned with in a scheme of education, for instincts are in one sense interests 
and have impelling power to sway the child for good or ill. Again, no 
truer insight into child life may be gained than by a study of his egoistic 
impulses. It is here we reach a basis for dealing with questions of a 
disciplinary character. 

These few hints may serve to show the direction such a course as is 
here contemplated by this Board may properly take. 

These texts are among the best: Titchener's Psychology, Macmillan 
& Co.; Thorndyke's Elements of Psychology, A. G. Seiler; Angell's Psy- 
chology, Henry Holt & Co.; James' Talks to Teachers and General Psy- 
chology, Henry Holt & Co. ; Judd's Psychology, Scribners ; Witmer's Ana- 
lytical Psychology, Ginn & Co. 



INDEX. 

PAGB 

Members State Board of Education 2 

Introductory 

Outline College Preparatory Course 

Explanation with reference to standards in the College Preparatory 

Course 

Outline General Course ° 

Outline Normal Course 

Group I: 

English ^"^ 

Group II. Mathematics: 

Elementary Algebra • ^^ 

Plane Geometry ^^ 

97 

Solid Geometry '^' 

Plane Trigonometry 28 

College Algebra 28 

Group III. Foreign Languages : 

Latin ^^ 

Greek ^^ 

German ""^ 

French ^^ 

Spanish ^■'- 

Group IV. Physical Sciences: 

Physics ^^ 

Chemistry ^^ 

Physiography "■'- 

(Outline for one year's work.) 

Physiography ^2 

(Outline for one-half year's work.) 

Group V. Biological Sciences : 

Botany ^^ 

Q7 

Zoology • ^' 

Physiology ^^2 

Group VI. History: 

European History 103^ 

Greek and Roman History 105 

Medieval and Modern History 105 

English History 105 

Economics HI 

Civics 11*^ 

(143) 



144 Index. 

Group VII. Commercial: page 

Arithmetic 116 

Bookkeeping and Business Practice 116 

Commercial Law 117 

Commercial Geography 117 

Stenography 117 

Typewriting 118 

Business Arithmetic 118 

Group VIII. Economic: 

Domestic Science 119 

Manual Training 123 

Mechanical Drawing 124 

Music ■ ... 126 

Agriculture 126 

Group IX. Pedagogy: 

School Management and Methods 138 

Psychology 141 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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